Official name: Jamhuria Afghanistan (Republic of Afghanistan)
Member of: UN
Area: 652225 km2 (251824 sq mi)
Population: 20270000 (1993 est).
Capital: Kabul 2000000 (including suburbs; 1993 est)
Other major cities: Kandahar (Qandahar) 226000, Herat 177000, Mazar-i-Sharif 131000 (1988 est)
Languages: Pushto (52%), Dari (Persian; 30%) both official
Religion: Sunni Islam (74%), Shia Islam (25%)
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for a two-chamber National Assembly to be elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The Loya Jirgha (the supreme state body, which consists of the National Assembly and the Cabinet, and provincial, legal and tribal representatives) elects the President, who appoints a Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The central highlands, dominated by the Hindu Kush, cover over 75% of the country and contain several peaks over 6400 m (21000 ft). North of the highlands are plains, an important agricultural region, while the southwest of the country is desert and semidesert. Climate: The central highlands have very cold winters and short cool summers, while the desert regions have cold winters and hot summers. Except in parts of the highlands, it is dry.
ECONOMY
Most of the usable land is pasture, mainly for sheep, but cereal crops, particularly wheat and maize, are also important. Principal exports include fresh and dried fruit, wool, cotton and natural gas. The economy has been damaged by civil war, and much of the infrastructure has been destroyed. Currency: Afghani.
HISTORY
Afghanistan was ruled by the Persians until the 4th century bc when Alexander the Great invaded, but Greek control was short lived as Afghanistan fell to barbarians from the north. In the 7th century ad Arabs reached the borders, bringing Islam. Various Muslim empires followed until 1222 when the country fell under the harsh control of the Mongol Genghis Khan. The rule of Tamerlane (Timur) in the 14th century was equally devastating. In the 18th century, the Persians united the country. In the 19th century, rivalry between Russia and Britain, who regarded Afghanistan as the key to India, led to instability. Britain attempted to assert control in two disastrous wars (183942 and 187881). Independence was only achieved in 1921 after a third war with the British. A period of unrest followed until a more stable monarchy was established in 1933. A coup in 1973 overthrew the monarchy. A close relationship with the USSR resulted from the 1978 Saur Revolution, but the Soviet invasion (1979) led to civil war. In 1989 the Soviets withdrew, leaving the cities in the hands of the government and Muslim fundamentalist guerrillas controlling the countryside. In 1992 fundamentalists took Kabul and formed a provisional government, but factional largely ethnic fighting continues. By 1995 the government had lost control of much of the country.
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ALBANIA
ALBANIA
Official name: Republika e Shqip
(Republic of Albania)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 28748 km2 (11100 sq mi)
Population: 3422000 (1993 est)
Capital: Tirana (Tiran
) 244000 (1990 est)
Other major cities: Durr
s 85000, Elbasan 83000 (1990 est)
Languages: Albanian (Gheg and Tosk dialects) Tosk is the official language
Religions: Sunni Islam (20%) practicing religion was banned from 1967 to 1990
GOVERNMENT
A President and a 140-member Peoples Assembly are elected under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Assembly elects a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Coastal lowlands support most of the countrys agriculture. Mountain ranges cover the greater part of Albania, and reach 2751 m / 9025 ft at Mount Korab. Climate: The Mediterranean coastal areas experience hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The mountainous interior has equally hot summers but very cold winters.
ECONOMY
Albania is poor by European standards. The economy relies on agriculture and the export of chromium. In 1990 Albania ended its self-imposed economic isolation and sought foreign financial, technical and humanitarian assistance. Nevertheless, the country has experienced continuing emigration and a collapse in industrial output. Most state-owned cooperative land has been redistributed into private hands and an agency to privatize state-owned industry has been established. Currency: Lek.
HISTORY
The revolt (144468) by Skenderbeg (?140368) against the Ottoman Turks who invaded in the 14th century is celebrated by Albanians as their national epic. Because most Albanians converted to Islam, they were able to secure autonomy and gain access to high positions in Ottoman service. By 1900, Ottoman enfeeblement encouraged Albanian nationalism, and in 1912, independence was declared. The country was occupied in both the Balkan Wars and World War I, and the formation of a stable government within recognized frontiers did not occur until the 1920s. Interwar Albania was dominated by Ahmed Zogu (18951961), who made himself king (as Zog I) in 1928. He fled when Mussolini invaded in 1939. Communist-led partisans took power when the Germans withdrew (1944). Under Enver Hoxha (190885), the regime pursued rapid modernization on Stalinist lines, allied, in turn, to Yugoslavia, the USSR and China, before opting (in 1978) for self-sufficiency and isolation. The liberal wing of the Communist Party won a power struggle (1990), instituted social and economic reforms, and held multi-party elections (1991). The Socialists (former Communists) were defeated in 1992. Albania faces severe economic problems and the threat of disorders in the neighboring Serbian province of Kosovo, where ethnic Albanians (who make up 90% of the population) are denied civil rights by the minority Serb community.
The constitution provides for the election of a President, who is head of state and of government, and a 296-member National Peoples Assembly by universal adult suffrage every five years. In 1992 the constitution was suspended and a military council was appointed.
GEOGRAPHY
Over 85% of Algeria is covered by the Sahara Desert. To the north lie the Atlas Mountains, which enclose a dry plateau. In the southeast are the Hoggar mountains, with Algerias highest point, Mount Tahat (2918 m / 9573 ft). Along the Mediterranean coast are plains and lower mountain ranges. Climate: The Mediterranean climate along the coastline is characterized by hot summers, mild winters and adequate rainfall. In the Sahara, it is hot and arid.
ECONOMY
Petroleum and natural gas are the main exports and important industries are based on oil and gas. Civil strife is adding to severe economic problems, which include high unemployment. Farmers and farm workers account for over 20% of the adult population, but lack of rain and suitable land mean that Algeria has to import two thirds of its food. The small amount of arable land mainly produces wheat, barley, fruit and vegetables, while arid pasturelands support sheep, goats and cattle. Currency: Algerian dinar.
HISTORY
After the fall of Carthage in 146 bc, coastal Algeria became Roman. In the 7th century the Arabs brought Islam despite initial Berber resistance. Several Berber empires flourished in the Middle Ages. In the 16th century, Turkish corsairs defended Algiers against the Spanish, and placed the region under Ottoman control. During the 18th century, Algeria became a center for piracy and in 1830 the French invaded on the pretext of protecting trade. Colonization followed, and coastal Algeria was attached to metropolitan France. By 1860 much of the best land was in French hands.
Nationalist riots in S
tif were ruthlessly suppressed in 1945, and in 1954 the Front de Lib
ration Nationale (FLN) initiated a revolt that became a bitter war. A rising by French settlers, in favor of the integration of Algeria with France, led to the crisis that returned de Gaulle to power in France (1958). Despite two further risings by the settlers (see p. 449), and the activities of the colonists terrorist organization, the OAS, Algeria gained independence in 1962. The first president, Ahmed Ben Bella (1916 ), was overthrown in 1965 by Colonel Houari Boum
dienne (193278), who established a one-party socialist state under the FLN. After his successor, Colonel Chadli Benjedid (1929 ), introduced multi-party democracy (1990), Islamic fundamentalism became a political force. In 1992 the second round of multi-party elections was cancelled when fundamentalists gained a large lead in the first round. The military took power and suspended political activity. In 1994 the struggle between the military and fundamentalists became more violent. Thousands of people were killed in the unrest in which intellectuals and foreigners working in Algeria were assassinated by fundamentalists.
Languages: Catalan (30%; official), Spanish (59%), French (6%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (90%)
GOVERNMENT
Andorra has joint heads of state (co-princes) the president of France and the Spanish bishop of Urgel who delegate their powers to permanent representatives who retain certain rights of veto under the 1993 constitution. The 28-member General Council, which is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage, comprises 14 members elected by constituencies and 14 members elected on a national list. The General Council chooses an Executive Council (government).
GEOGRAPHY
In the eastern Pyrenees, Andorra is surrounded by mountains up to 3000 m (9840 ft) high. Climate: Andorra is mild in spring and summer, but cold for six months, with snow in the winter.
ECONOMY
Tourism has been encouraged by the development of ski resorts and by the duty-free status of consumer goods. Currency: French and Spanish currency.
HISTORY
Andorras joint allegiance to Spanish and French co-princes dates directly from an agreement made in 1278 between the Spanish bishop of Urgel and the count of Foix, an ancestor of the Bourbon kings of France. The reforms of 1993 included a new constitution, the legalization of trade unions and political parties, a separate judiciary, independent diplomatic representation and UN membership. Andorra is included within the EU/EC by special agreement.
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ANGOLA
ANGOLA
Official name: A Rep
blica de Angola (The Republic of Angola)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 1246700 km2 (481351 sq mi)
Population: 10916000 (1993 est)
Capital: Luanda 1200000 (1988 est)
Other major cities: Huambo 203000, Benguela 155000 (1983 est)
A 220-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for three years and a President for six years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Plateau, over 1000 m (3300 ft), cover 90% of Angola. The highest point Serra M
co reaches 2610 m (8563 ft). In the west is a narrow coastal plain and in the southwest is desert. Climate: Angola is tropical, with slightly lower temperatures in the uplands. October to May is the rainy season, but the southwest is dry all year.
ECONOMY
Angolas economy has been wrecked by war. The country is, however, rich in minerals, particularly diamonds, iron ore and petroleum. Although less than 5% of the land is arable, over half the adult population is engaged in agriculture. The main export crop is coffee. Currency: New Kwanza.
HISTORY
The Kongo and Ndongo kingdoms ruled much of the area when the Portuguese arrived in the late 15th century and developed a major slave trade. In the 20th century, forced labour, heavy taxation and discrimination from white settlers helped to stimulate nationalism. Portugals repression of all political protest led to the outbreak of guerrilla wars in 1961. When independence was finally conceded (1975), three rival guerrilla movements fought for control of Angola. With Soviet and Cuban support, the (Marxist-Leninist) MPLA, under Dr Agostinho Neto (192279), gained the upper hand and repulsed an invasion from South Africa. In the 1980s, Cuban troops continued to support the MPLA government against the South African-aided UNITA movement in the south. Foreign involvement in the civil war ended in 1990. Following a ceasefire (1991), multi-party elections were held in 1992. UNITA forces resumed the conflict after rejecting the election results, but a new ceasefire and power-sharing agreement was signed in 1994.
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ANTIGUA
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
Member of: UN, CARICOM, Commonwealth, OAS
Area: 442 km2 (170.5 sq mi)
Population: 66000 (1993 est)
Capital: St Johns 36000 (1986 est)
Language: English (official)
Religions: Anglican (44%), Moravian
GOVERNMENT
The 17-member House of Representatives is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The 17-member Senate is appointed. A Prime Minister and Cabinet of Ministers, commanding a majority in the lower house, are appointed by the Governor General, the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Antigua.
GEOGRAPHY
Antigua is a low limestone island, rising in the west to Boggy Peak (402 m / 1319 ft). Barbuda 45 km / 25 mi to the north is a flat wooded coral island. Redonda is a rocky outcrop. Climate: The tropical climate is moderated by sea breezes. Rainfall is low for the West Indies, and Antigua island suffers from drought.
ECONOMY
Tourism is the mainstay of the country. In an attempt to diversify the economy, the government has encouraged agriculture, but the lack of water on Antigua island is a problem. Currency: East Caribbean dollar.
HISTORY
Antigua was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and colonized by English settlers in 1632. Black slaves were imported to work the sugar plantations. Barbuda was colonized from Antigua (1661) and run as a private estate by the Codrington family until it was annexed to Antigua in 1860. Britain granted Antigua complete internal self-government in 1967 and independence in 1981.
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ARGENTIN
ARGENTINA
Official name: Rep
blica Argentina (the Argentine Republic)
Member of: UN, OAS, ALADI, Mercosur
Area: 2766889 km2 (1068302 sq mi), excluding territories claimed by Argentina: the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), South Georgia, South Sandwich Islands, and parts of the Antarctic
Population: 33500000 (1993 est)
Capital: Buenos Aires 12582000 (including suburbs; 1991 census)
Other major cities: C
rdoba 1179000, Rosario 1096000, Mendoza 729000, La Plata 644000 (all including suburbs; 1991 census)
Languages: Spanish (95%; official), Guarani (3%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (92%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and Vice-President are elected for four years by an electoral college of 600 members who are chosen by universal adult suffrage. The lower house of Congress (the Chamber of Deputies) has 259 members elected by universal suffrage for four years, with one half of its members retiring every two years. The 48 members of the upper house (the Senate) are chosen by provincial legislatures to serve for nine years, with 16 members retiring every three years.
GEOGRAPHY
The Andes, whose highest point in Argentina is Cerro Aconcagua (6960 m / 22834 ft), extend as a rugged barrier along the border with Chile. South of the Colorado River is Patagonia, an important pastureland although much of it is semidesert. Nearly 80% of the population lives in the pampas, whose prairies form one of the worlds most productive agricultural regions. The subtropical plains of northeast Argentina contain part of the Gran Chaco prairie and rain forests. Principal rivers: Paran
(4880 km / 3032 mi), Colorado (850 km / 530 mi). Climate: Most of Argentina has a mild temperate climate, although the south is cooler and the northeast is subtropical. The higher parts of the Andes have a subpolar climate. Rainfall is heavy in the Andes and the far northeast, but generally decreases towards the south and southwest, which are dry.
ECONOMY
Argentina is one of the worlds leading producers of beef, wool, mutton, wheat and wine. The pampas produce cereals, while fruit and vines are important in the northwest. Pasturelands cover over 50% of Argentina for beef cattle in the pampas and for sheep in Patagonia. However, manufacturing (including chemicals, steel, cement, paper, pulp and textiles) now makes the greatest contribution to the economy. The country is rich in natural resources including petroleum, natural gas, iron ore and precious metals, and has great potential for hydroelectric power. Argentinas status as an economic power declined between the 1930s and 1980s, but financial reforms greatly improved prospects in the 1990s. Currency: Peso.
HISTORY
Northwest Argentina was part of the Inca Empire (see pp. 39091), while Patagonia and the pampas were home to nomadic Indians. The Spanish arrived in the La Plata estuary in 1516 but early colonization of the region was slow. During the Napoleonic Wars, nationalism grew. San Mart
n helped lead the revolution that ended Spanish rule. Independence was declared in 1816, but the war of liberation continued until 1820, and the first national government was only formed in 1826. Although it was reunited under the dictator de Rosas (183552), Argentina was wracked by disunity, and the powers of the provincial governments were not curbed until the 1850s. From 1880, large-scale European immigration and British investment helped Argentina to develop a flourishing economy. Prosperity was ended by the Depression (see p. 441), and, in 1930, constitutional rule was interrupted by a military coup.
In 1946, a populist leader, Juan Per
n (18951974), came to power with the support of the unions. His wife Eva was a powerful and popular figure, and after her death (1952), Per
n was deposed (1955) because of his unsuccessful economic policies. Succeeding civilian governments were unable to conquer rampant inflation, and the military took power again (196673). An unstable period of civilian rule (197376) included Per
ns brief second presidency. In the early 1970s, urban terrorism grew and the economic crisis deepened, prompting another coup. The military junta that seized control in 1976 received international condemnation when thousands of opponents of the regime were arrested or disappeared. In April 1982, President Galtieri ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands and its dependencies, which had long been claimed by Argentina. A British task force recaptured the islands in June 1982, and Galtieri resigned. Constitutional rule was restored in 1983. Argentinas economic prospects have greatly improved since 1989 under President Carlos Menem.
Official name: Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (Republic of Armenia)
Member of: UN, CIS, OSCE
Area: 29800 km2 (11506 sq mi)
Population: 3550000 (1993 est)
Capital: Yerevan 1283000 (1991 est)
Other major city: Kumayri (Gyumri; formerly Leninakan) 163000 (1991 est)
Languages: Armenian (official; 93%), Azeri (3%)
Religion: Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) majority
GOVERNMENT
A 185-member State Council and an executive President are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
All of Armenia is mountainous only 10% of the country is under 1000 m (3300 ft). The highest peak is Mt Aragats at 4090 m (13418 ft). Climate: Armenia has a dry continental climate with considerable local variations owing to altitude and aspect.
ECONOMY
The industrial sector includes chemicals, metallurgy, textiles, precision goods and food processing. Major projects have provided hydroelectric power and irrigation water for agriculture. Privatization has begun. The war against Azerbaijan has devastated the economy and resulted in a severe energy shortage. Currency: Dram.
HISTORY
Ancient Armenia was incorporated, in turn, into the Persian Empire (see p. 365), the empire of Alexander the Great (see p. 372) and the Seleucid Empire (see p. 373). Independent Armenian states appeared in the 2nd century bc and a united Armenian kingdom was established c. 55 bc. Christianity was adopted c. ad 300. In the 4th and 5th centuries Armenia was divided between the Byzantine Empire (see p. 394) and Persia. An independent kingdom (Greater Armenia) emerged in the 9th century, but was constantly threatened by invasion from the Arabs, Byzantines, Persians and Seljuks. When Greater Armenia fell to the Mongols (123642), many Armenians fled to Cilicia (modern southeast Turkey), where the kingdom of Little Armenia flourished until the 14th century, when it was overrun by Mamluk armies from Egypt. In the 16th century Armenia was fought over by Persia and the Ottoman Turks. After 1620 west and central Armenia was ruled by the Turks and eastern Armenia (the present state) was taken by Persia.
Russia annexed Persian Armenia between 1813 and 1828. The Armenians under Ottoman rule suffered persecution and, in 1896 and in 1915, large-scale massacres. During World War I Turkey deported nearly 2000000 Armenians (suspected of pro-Russian sympathies) to Syria and Mesopotamia. The survivors contributed to an Armenian diaspora in Europe and the USA. Following the collapse of Tsarist Russia, an independent Armenian state emerged briefly (191822), but faced territorial wars with all its neighbors. Armenia was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1922 and became a separate Union Republic within the USSR in 1936. After the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow, Armenia declared independence and received international recognition when the USSR was dissolved (1991). From 1990 to 1994 Azeri and Armenian forces were involved in a violent dispute concerning the status of Nagorno Karabakh, an enclave of Orthodox Christian Armenians surrounded by the Shiite Muslim Azeris. In 1994, after Armenia had overrun 20% of Azerbaijan, a Russian-brokered ceasefire was signed.
External Territories (with areas, populations and capitals):
Ashmore and Cartier Islands 5 km2 (2 sq mi), uninhabited.
Australian Antarctic Territory 6120000 km2 (2320000 sq mi), no permanent population.
Christmas Island 135 km2 (52 sq mi), 1275 (1991 census), Flying Fish Cove.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands 14 km2 (5.5 sq mi), 650 (1991 census), Bantam Village on Home Island.
Coral Sea Islands Territory 8 km2 (5 sq mi), no permanent population.
Heard and MacDonald Islands 417 km2 (161 sq mi), no permanent population.
Norfolk Island 34.5 km2 (13.3 sq mi), 1980 (1990 est), Kingston.
GOVERNMENT
The Federal Parliament consists of two chambers elected by compulsory universal adult suffrage. The Senate has 76 members elected by proportional representation 12 senators elected from each state for six years, 2 from both territories elected for three years. The House of Representatives has 148 members elected for three years. A Prime Minister, who commands a majority in the House of Representatives, is appointed by the Governor General, who is the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Australia. The Prime Minister chairs the Federal Executive Council (or Cabinet), which is responsible to Parliament. Each state has its own government.
GEOGRAPHY
Vast areas of desert cover most of central and western Australia, a region of plateau between 400 and 600 m (13002000 ft) with occasional higher regions, such as the Kimberley Plateau. In contrast to this scarcely populated area which covers more than 50% of the country are the narrow coastal plains of the fertile, well-watered east coast, where the majority of Australians live. Behind the plains (which range from temperate forest in the south, through subtropical woodland to tropical rain forest in the north) rise the Eastern Uplands, or Great Dividing Range, a line of ridges and plateau, stretching from Cape York Peninsula in the north to the island of Tasmania. The Australian Alps rise to Mt Kosciusko (2230 m / 7316 ft). The Great Artesian Basin extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Murray River and Eyre Basins. Landforms in the basin include rolling plains, plateau, salt lakes and river valleys, while the natural vegetation ranges from savannah and mixed forest to arid steppe and desert. Between the Murray River and Eyre Basins are the Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges. Many of Australias rivers flow intermittently. Principal rivers: Murray 2589 km (1609 mi) with Darling 2700 km (1700 mi), Lachlan 2388 km (1484 mi), Flinders 837 km (520 mi). Climate: The north is tropical with wet summers (January to March) and dry winters. The Timor Sea coast is subject to summer monsoons. The Queensland coast experiences tropical cyclones and has the heaviest rainfall, over 2500 mm (100 in) near Cairns. The interior is extremely hot and dry over 30% of Australia has less than 255 mm (10 in) of rain a year. The coastal fringes in the south are either temperate or subtropical, with winter rainfall, hot or warm summers and mild winters. Winter snowfall occurs in the southeast and Tasmanian highlands.
ECONOMY
Since World War II, Australias economy has been dominated by mining. Minerals now account for over 30% of the countrys exports. Australia has major reserves of coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, iron ore, copper, nickel, bauxite, gold and diamonds. Manufacturing and processing based upon these resources include iron and steel, construction, oil refining and petrochemicals, vehicle manufacturing and engineering. Food-processing and textile industries are also prominent. Australias reliance on agriculture has decreased, although the country is still the worlds leading producer of wool. Major interests include sheep, cattle, cereals (in particular wheat), sugar (in Queensland) and fruit. Severe drought affected large areas in the early 1990s. A strong commercial sector, with banks and finance houses, adds to the diversity of the economy. Currency: Australian dollar.
HISTORY
The Aborigines came to Australia around 50 000 years ago (see p. 389). They lived mainly along the north and east coasts and in the Murray Basin until British settlers drove them into the inhospitable interior. The Dutch are credited with the discovery of Australia. Willem de Janesz sighted Cape York Peninsula (1606), Hartog made the first landing in 1616 (in Western Australia), and Tasman explored the coasts (164244). However, the hospitable regions most suitable for colonization were not known to Europeans until Captain Cook landed at Botany Bay (1770), and claimed New South Wales for Britain.
In 1788, the first settlement was made at Port Jackson (Sydney), with over 700 British convicts and 250 free settlers. Penal settlements at Hobart and Launceston in Tasmania, and Newcastle (NSW) followed (180304). Moreton Bay (Brisbane) was established in 1824, Port Phillip (Melbourne) in 1826, and Albany (Western Australia) in 1827. Adelaide (South Australia), a settlement without convicts, was founded in 1837. Free migration was encouraged. The spread of sheep farming, and the discovery of copper (1840s) and gold (1851), attracted large numbers of migrants. The colonists campaigned to end transportation the last convicts arrived in 1867 and agitated for participation in government. In 1854, gold miners at Eureka Stockade (Ballarat) rebelled over the lack of representative government. This celebrated incident hastened reform. Between 1855 and 1870, all six colonies gained self-government. By 1900, 3700000 people, almost entirely of British and Irish ancestry, were living in Australia. Fear of invasion from Asia or German New Guinea, and the desire to achieve free trade between the colonies, encouraged federation. In 1901, the Commonwealth of Australia was founded.
Australia made an important contribution in World War I one fifth of its servicemen were killed in action. The heroic landing at Gallipoli in the Dardanelles (see p. 437) is a national day of remembrance in Australia. The Depression hit the country badly (see p. 441), but the interwar years did see international recognition of Australias independence. World War II, during which the north was threatened by Japan, strengthened links with America. Australian troops fought in Vietnam and important trading partnerships have been formed with Asian countries. Since 1945, migrants from all over Europe and many parts of Asia have gained assisted passage to Australia, further diluting the British connection and encouraging the growth of republicanism.
Executive power is shared by the Federal President (who is elected by universal adult suffrage for a six-year term) and the Council of Ministers, led by the Federal Chancellor. The President appoints a Chancellor who commands a majority in the Federal Assemblys lower chamber, the Nationalrat, whose 183 members are elected by universal adult suffrage according to proportional representation for a term of four years. The 63 members of the upper chamber the Bundesrat are elected by the assemblies of the nine provinces of the Federal Republic.
GEOGRAPHY
The Alps much of which are covered by pastures and forests occupy nearly two thirds of Austria. The highest point is the Grossglockner (3798 m / 12462 ft). Lowland Austria, in the east, consists of low hills, the Vienna Basin and a flat marshy area beside the Neusiedler See on the Hungarian border. Along the Czech border is a forested massif rising to 1200 m (4000 ft). Principal river: Danube (Donau) 2850 km (1770 mi). Climate: There are many local variations in climate owing to altitude and aspect. The east is drier than the west, and is, in general, colder than the Alpine region in the winter and hotter, but more humid, in the summer. Areas over 3000 m (10000 ft) are snow-covered all year.
ECONOMY
Although Austria produces about 90% of its own food requirements, farming employs only 7% of the labor force. The arable land in the east has fertile soils producing good yields of cereals and grapes for wine. Dairy produce is an important export from the pasturelands in the east and in the Alps. The mainstay of the economy is manufacturing industry, including machinery and transport equipment, iron and steel products, refined petroleum products, cement and paper. Natural resources include hydroelectric power potential and extensive forests. The Alps attract winter and summer visitors, making tourism a major foreign-currency earner. Currency: Schilling.
HISTORY
The Babenberg family ruled what became Austria from the late 10th century until 1250. Their successor as duke was defeated by Rudolf of Habsburg, the Holy Roman Emperor, in 1276, and from that date Austria became the heartland of the Empire. With one exception, every Holy Roman Emperor from 1438 to 1806 was a member of the Habsburg family (see pp. 34445). In 1529, and in 1683, Austria repelled the Turks from the walls of Vienna and halted their advance across Europe. By the middle of the 16th century, the extent of the Habsburgs territory had become unmanageable, and Charles V divided his inheritance, separating Spain from the Empire in central Europe (see pp. 41011). In the 18th century, Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II reformed Austria and strengthened the multilingual Habsburg state. This was based on Austria, Hungary and Czech-speaking Bohemia, but it also included Polish, Croat, Slovak, Slovene and Italian areas (see pp. 417 and 41819).
Napoleon I abolished the anachronistic Holy Roman Empire, but Francis II, foreseeing its dissolution, took the title Emperor of Austria. Metternich shaped the fortunes of Austria in the early 19th century and attempted to maintain the boundaries drawn by the Vienna Settlement (181415), but the Empire was bedevilled by national and ethnic divisions (see p. 428). Austrias partnership with the Hungarians (in the Dual Monarchy established in 1867) did not ease these tensions. Defeat in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) excluded Austrian influence from Germany, and the Habsburgs were left to dominate unstable south-central Europe (see p. 429). In 1914, a Serb assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne an event which precipitated World War I (see pp. 429 and 436). In 191819, the Habsburg empire was dismembered (see p. 440). A separate Austrian republic was established despite considerable support for union with Germany. Unstable throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Austria was annexed by Germany in 1938 (the Anschluss, see p. 442). Austria was liberated in 1945, but Allied occupation forces remained until 1955 when the independence of a neutral republic was recognized. The collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (198991) allowed Austria to renew traditional links with Hungary and the Czechs. Austria joined the EU/EC in 1995.
Official name: Azarbayjan Respublikasy (Republic of Azerbaijan)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 86600 km2 (33400 sq mi)
Population: 7283000 (1993 est)
Capital: Baku 1757000 (1989 est)
Other major city: Gyanzha (Ganca; formerly Kirovabad) 270000 (1989 est)
Languages: Azeri (83%), Russian (6%), Armenian (2%)
Religion: Shia Islam majority
GOVERNMENT
An executive President and a 350-member Assembly (Milli Majlis) are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
Azerbaijan comprises lowlands beside the Caspian Sea, part of the Caucasus Mountains in the north and the Little Caucasus in the southwest. The republic includes the Nakhichevan enclave to the west of Armenia. Climate: A wide climatic range includes dry and humid subtropical conditions beside the Caspian Sea and continental conditions in the mountains.
ECONOMY
Important reserves of oil and natural gas are the mainstay of the economy and the basis of heavy industries. Although industry dominates the economy, agriculture contributes a variety of exports, including cotton and tobacco. Sturgeon are caught in the Caspian Sea for the important caviar industry. The war with Armenia has damaged the economy and Azerbaijan suffers very high inflation. Currency: Manat.
HISTORY
The Azeris were conquered by the Arabs in 632, but, although the region remained under Arab rule until the 11th century, Turkic rather than Arabic language and culture prevailed after the 9th century. The Mongols controlled Azerbaijan from 1236 to 1498, when the Azeris came under Persian rule. In the 18th century Tsarist Russia gradually expanded into the Caucasus. Russia took northern Azerbaijan in 1813, and Nakhichevan and the rest of the present state in 1828. However, the greater part of the land of the Azeris remained under Persian rule. During World War I, a nationalist Azeri movement became allied with the Turks. An independent Azeri state was founded with Turkish assistance (1918), but was invaded by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Azerbaijan became part of the Soviet Union in 1922 and a separate Union Republic within the USSR in 1936. Independence was declared following the abortive coup in Moscow by Communist hardliners and was internationally recognized when the USSR was dissolved (1991). Independent Azerbaijan has been politically unstable. From 1990 to 1994 Azeri and Armenian forces were involved in a violent dispute concerning the status of Nagorno Karabakh, an enclave of Orthodox Christian Armenians surrounded by the Shiite Muslim Azeris. After Armenian forces had occupied 20% of Azerbaijan, a Russian-brokered ceasefire was agreed in 1994.
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BAHAMAS
BAHAMAS
Official name: The Commonwealth of the Bahamas
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAS, CARICOM
Area: 13939 km2 (5382 sq mi)
Population: 266000 (1993 est)
Capital: Nassau 169000 (1990 census)
Language: English (official)
Religions: Baptist (29%), Roman Catholic (26%)
GOVERNMENT
The Senate (the upper house of Parliament) has 16 appointed members. The House of Assembly (the lower house) has 49 members elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. A Prime Minister, who commands a majority in the House, is appointed by the Governor General, who is the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of the Bahamas. The Prime Minister chairs the Cabinet, which is responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
The Bahamas comprises some 700 long, flat, narrow islands, and over 2000 barren rocky islets. Climate: The climate is mild and subtropical, with no great seasonal variation in temperature. Rainfall averages just over 1000 mm (40 in). The islands are liable to hurricanes.
ECONOMY
Tourism mainly from the USA is the major source of income, and, with related industries, it employs the majority of the labor force. The islands have become a tax haven and financial center. Currency: Bahamian dollar.
HISTORY
Columbus landed in the Bahamas when he reached the New World (1492). In the 17th century, English colonists attempted to settle, but development was slow. After the American Revolution, an influx of Loyalists and their slaves established cotton plantations, but the abolition of slavery (1834) ended this activity. Although the first representative assembly met in 1729, internal self-government was not achieved until 1964. Independence was granted in 1973.
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BAHRAIN
BAHRAIN
Official name: Daulat al-Bahrain (The State of Bahrain)
Member of: UN, Arab League, OPEC, GCC
Area: 691 km2 (267 sq mi)
Population: 516000 (1991 est)
Capital: Manama 152000 (1988 est)
Other major city: al-Muharraq 78000 (1988 est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religion: Sunni Islam (33%), Shia Islam (60%)
GOVERNMENT
Bahrain is ruled directly by an Amir (a hereditary monarch), who appoints a Council of Ministers and a 30-member Consultative Council.
GEOGRAPHY
Bahrain comprises an archipelago of the 35 small islands. Bahrain Island, the largest, consists mainly of sandy plains and salt marshes, and is linked to Saudi Arabia by causeway. Climate: The climate is very hot. The annual average rainfall is 75 mm (3 in).
ECONOMY
The wealth of Bahrain is due to its petroleum and natural gas resources, and the oil-refining industry. As reserves began to wane in the 1970s, the government encouraged diversification. As a result, Bahrain is now one of the Gulfs major banking and communication centers. Currency: Bahraini dinar.
HISTORY
Bahrain part of the Arab Islamic world since the 7th century was Persian from 1602 until 1783, when rule by the Sunni al-Khalifa family began. In the 19th century, Bahrain signed a series of treaties under which it became a British protectorate. Bahrain was the first Gulf state to develop its petroleum industry (from 1932). Since independence in 1971, there has been tension between the Sunni and Shiite communities. This increased following the suspension of the Assembly and the constitution in 1975, and in 1994 Shiite discontent resulted in rioting. Bahrain joined the coalition forces against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait (199091).
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BANGLADE
BANGLADESH
Official name: Gana Praja Tantri Bangla Desh (Peoples Republic of Bangladesh)
Other major cities: Chittagong 2133000, Khulna 1029000 (1991 census)
Language: Bengali (official; 97%)
Religion: Sunni Islam (over 85%; official), Hindu (12%)
GOVERNMENT
The Parliament (Jatiya Sangsad) comprises 300 members elected for five years by universal adult suffrage and 30 women chosen by the elected members. Parliament elects a President who serves for five years and a Prime Minister, who appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Bangladesh is alluvial plains in the deltas of the rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra which combine as the Padma. The swampy plains, generally less than 9 m (30 ft) above sea level, are dissected by rivers dividing into numerous distributaries with raised banks. The south and southeast coastal regions contain mangrove forests (the Sundarbans). The only uplands are the Sylhet Hills in the northeast and the Chittagong hill country in the east rising to 1230 m (4034 ft) at the Keokradong. Principal rivers: Ganges 2506 km (1557 mi), Brahmaputra (Jumuna) 2900 km (1800 mi). Climate: The climate is tropical with the highest temperatures between April and September. Most of the countrys rainfall comes during the annual monsoon (June to October), when intense storms accompanied by high winds bring serious flooding. Rainfall totals range from 1000 mm (40 in) in the west to 5000 mm (200 in) in the Sylhet Hills.
ECONOMY
With a rapidly increasing population, Bangladesh is among the worlds poorest countries and is heavily dependent on foreign aid. Over 70% of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Rice is produced on over 75% of the cultivated land, but although the land is fertile, crops are subject to floods and cyclones. A major Flood Action Plan, started in 1992, will alter the course of rivers and raise embankments. The main cash crops are jute and tea. Industries include those processing agricultural products jute, cotton and sugar. There are reserves of natural gas. Currency: Taka.
HISTORY
A part of the Mogul empire from the 16th century, the area came under British rule within India after 1757. On partition in 1947, as the majority of its inhabitants were Muslim, the area became the eastern province of Pakistan. Separated by 1600 km (1000 mi) from the Urdu-speaking, politically dominant western province, East Pakistan saw itself as a victim of economic and ethnic injustice. Resentment led to civil war in 1971 when Indian aid to Bengali irregulars gave birth to an independent Peoples Republic of Bangladesh (Free Bengal) under Sheik Mujib-ur-Rahman. Mujibs assassination in 1975 led eventually to a takeover by General Zia-ur-Rahman, who amended the constitution to create an Islamic state. Zia in turn was assassinated in 1981 and General Ershad took power in 1982. After Ershad was deposed (1990), a parliamentary system was reintroduced.
The 21 members of the Senate are appointed; the 27 members of the House of Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The Governor General, the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Barbados, appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House. The PM appoints a Cabinet responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
Barbados is generally flat and low, except in the north where it rises to Mount Hillaby (340 m / 1115 ft). Climate: Barbados has a tropical climate. Rainfall is heavy, with totals everywhere above 1000 mm (40 in). The island is subject to hurricanes.
ECONOMY
Tourism (the main source of income) employs about one third of the labor force. The government has encouraged diversification and there has been growth in banking and insurance. Sugar once the mainstay of Barbados remains the main crop. Currency: Barbados dollar.
HISTORY
Barbados was claimed and settled by the English in the 1620s. Black slaves were imported to work the sugar cane plantations, which, in the 18th century, made the island one of the most profitable parts of the British Empire. Slavery was abolished in 1834, but economic and political power remained with a small white minority. In the 1930s, economic and social conditions for black Barbadians were miserable. Riots in 1937 led to reforms and also greatly increased black political consciousness. As a result, Barbadians, such as Grantley Adams and Errol Barrow, became prominent in Caribbean politics. Barbados became independent in 1966.
Other major cities: Gomel (Homel) 503000, Vitebsk (Vitsyebsk) 369000, Mogilev (Mahilyou) 363000 (1991 est)
Languages: Belarussian (also known as Belorussian) (79%), Russian (13%), Polish (4%)
Religions: Belarussian Orthodox majority; Roman Catholic minority
GOVERNMENT
A 160-member Assembly (Sejm) and a President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
Belarus comprises lowlands covered with glacial debris in the north, fertile well-drained tablelands and ridges in the center, and the low-lying Pripet Marshes in the south and east. Much of the country is flat and the highest point, Dzyarzhynskaya Mountain, reaches only 346 m (1135 ft). Climate: The continental climate is moderated by the proximity of the Baltic Sea. Belarussian winters are considerably milder than those experienced in European Russia to the east.
ECONOMY
Although Belarus has few natural resources, its economy is overwhelmingly industrial. Major heavy engineering, chemical, fertilizer, oil refining and synthetic fiber industries were established as part of the centrally planned Soviet economy, but output has declined since 1991. Belarus is dependent upon trade with other former Soviet republics, from which it imports the raw materials for its industries and upon which it relies as a market for its industrial goods. Little progress has been made towards establishing a market economy. Severe economic problems include high inflation and contamination from Chernobyl (see below). Agriculture is dominated by raising fodder crops for beef cattle, pigs and poultry. Flax is grown for export and the local linen industry. Extensive forests supply important woodworking and paper industries. Currency: Belarus uses Russian currency.
HISTORY
The Belarussian Slavs arrived in the region between the 6th and 8th centuries ad. A number of small Belarussian states flourished after c. 700 but were soon conquered by Kievan Rus. When the Tatars overran Kievan Rus (1240), the Belarussian lands came under Lithuanian rule. After 1569, when Lithuania and Poland became one state, the area was dominated by a Polish Roman Catholic aristocracy. In 164854, the Orthodox Belarussians, who had been reduced to serfdom, rose in revolt against a resented Polish elite that controlled the land, administration and trade. The Belarussians came under Russian rule as a result of the three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793 and 1795).
The region suffered some of the fiercest fighting between Russia and Germany during World War I. Following the Russian Revolution (see p. 438), a Byelorussian Soviet republic was proclaimed (1919). The republic was invaded by the Poles in the same year and divided between Poland and the USSRin 1921. Byelorussia was devastated during World War II. In 1945 the Belarussians were reunited in a single Soviet republic. A perceived lack of Soviet concern for the republic at the time of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station (just over the Ukrainian border) strengthened a reawakening Belarussian national identity. Contamination from Chernobyl affected about 20% of the republic, causing some areas to be sealed off and necessitating the eventual resettlement of up to 2 000 000 people. Byelorussia declared independence following the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow and as Belarus received international recognition when the USSR was dissolved (1991). In 1994 Belarus negotiated a close economic and monetary link with Russia.
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BELGIUM
BELGIUM
Official names: Royaume de Belgique or Koninkrijk Belgi
(Kingdom of Belgium)
Member of: UN, NATO, EU/EC, OSCE, WEU, OECD
Area: 30 519 km2 (11783 sq mi)
Population: 10 072 000 (1993 est)
Capital: Brussels (Bruxelles or Brussel) 951000 (1992 est)
Other major cities: Antwerp (Antwerpen or Anvers) 917000 (city 465000), Li
Languages: Flemish (58% as a first language), French (42% as a first language)
Religion: Roman Catholic (86%)
GOVERNMENT
Belgium is a constitutional monarchy. The Chamber of Deputies (the lower house of Parliament) comprises 212 members elected by universal adult suffrage for four years under a system of proportional representation. The Senate (the upper house) has 182 members: 106 directly elected, 50 chosen by provincial councils, 25 co-opted, plus the heir to the throne. The King appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Chamber, and, upon the PMs advice, other members of the Cabinet. The directly elected regional councils of Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels have very considerable powers.
GEOGRAPHY
The forested Ardennes plateau rising to Mount Botrange (694 m / 2272 ft) occupies the southeast. The plains of central Belgium, an important agricultural region, are covered in fertile loess. The flat, low-lying north contains the sandy Kempenland plateau in the east and the plain of Flanders in the west. Enclosed by dykes behind coastal sand dunes are polders, former marshes reclaimed from the sea. Principal rivers: Scheldt (Schelde or Escaut) 435 km (270 mi), Meuse (Maes) 950 km (590 mi). Climate: Belgium experiences relatively cool summers and mild winters, with ample rainfall throughout the year. Summers are hotter and winters colder inland.
ECONOMY
Belgium is a small, densely populated industrial country with few natural resources. In the center and the north, soils are generally fertile and the climate encourages high yields of wheat, sugar beet, grass and fodder crops. Metalworking originally based on small mineral deposits in the Ardennes is the most important industry. Textiles, chemicals, ceramics, glass and rubber are also important, but, apart from coal, most raw materials required by industry now have to be imported. Economic problems since the 1970s have mirrored Belgiums linguistic divide, with high unemployment largely confined to the French-speaking (Walloon) south, while industry in the Flemish north has prospered. Banking, commerce and administration employ increasing numbers, and Brussels has benefited from its role as the unofficial capital of the EU/EC. Currency: Belgian franc.
HISTORY
Belgium has been fought over by neighboring powers for centuries. In the early Middle Ages, the area was divided into counties and duchies subject to the Holy Roman Emperor (see pp. 39495). In the 12th14th centuries, Bruges, Ghent and other Flemish textile centers were among the most prosperous cities in Europe. From 1384, most of modern Belgium was controlled by the rulers of Burgundy, whose territories were inherited by the Spanish Habsburgs in 1504. After the Protestant Dutch United Provinces rebelled and gained independence in the late 16th century, the Catholic south of the Low Countries (Belgium) remained under Spanish rule.
By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), the Spanish Netherlands passed to Austria. In the confusion of the French Revolutionary Wars, the Belgians expelled the Austrians (1791), but Belgium was annexed by France in 1793. After the Napoleonic Wars, which ended at Waterloo in Belgium (see p. 427), the Low Countries were reunited as the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815). In 1830 the Belgians rebelled against Dutch rule and proclaimed their independence. Belgian neutrality was recognized by the Congress of London (1831) and the crown was offered to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Queen Victorias uncle.
Belgiums neutrality was broken by the German invasion in 1914 (which led to Britains declaration of war under the 1831 treaty). The brave resistance of King Albert I in 191418 earned international admiration; the capitulation of Leopold III when Belgium was again occupied by Germany (194045) was severely criticized. The Belgian Congo (Za
re), acquired as a personal possession by Leopold II (1879), was relinquished amidst scenes of chaos in 1960. Belgium is now the main center of administration of the EU/EC and of NATO, but it is troubled by acute rivalry between its Flemish and French speakers and has adopted a federal system based upon linguistic regions.
Languages: English (majority; official), Creole (33%), Spanish (32%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (62%)
GOVERNMENT
The eight members of the Senate are appointed by the Governor General, the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Belize. The 28 members of the House of Representatives are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The Governor General appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House, and, on the PMs advice, a Cabinet, which is responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
Tropical jungle covers much of Belize. The south contains the Maya Mountains rising to 1122 m (3681 ft). The north is mainly swampy lowlands. Climate: The subtropical climate is tempered by trade winds. Rainfall is heavy, but there is a dry season between February and May.
ECONOMY
The production of sugar, bananas and citrus fruit for export dominates the economy. Currency: Belize dollar.
HISTORY
Mayan settlements flourished in Belize (see pp. 39091) until 600 years before the arrival of the Spanish. Although Spain claimed the area, there were no Europeans living in Belize until English pirates and loggers settled in the 17th century. Black slaves were imported to cut timber. In 1862 the area formally became the colony of British Honduras. The colony gained independence as Belize in 1981, but Guatemala continued to claim it as part of her territory until 1991.
Languages: French (official), Fon (47%), Adja (12%)
Religions: Animist (61%), Sunni Islam (16%)
GOVERNMENT
A President and a 64-member National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
In the northwest, the Atacora Massif reaches 635 m (2083 ft); in the northeast, plains slope down to the Niger Valley. The plateau of central Benin fall in the south to a low fertile region. A narrow coastal plain is backed by lagoons. Climate: The north is tropical; the south is equatorial.
ECONOMY
The economy is based on agriculture, which occupies the majority of the labor force. The main food crops are cassava (manioc), yams and maize; the principal cash crop is palm oil. In the late 1980s, central planning was abandoned in favor of a market economy. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Benin was called Dahomey until 1975. From the 17th to the 19th centuries the kingdom of Dahomey was one of the principal slave trading states of West Africa. In the 1890s, Dahomey was conquered by the French. Political turmoil followed independence in 1960, and five coups took place between 1963 and 1972, when a Marxist-Leninist government came to power. A multi-party system was restored in 1991.
Official name: Druk-yul (Realm of the Dragon/Bhutan)
Member of: UN
Area: 46500 km2 (17954 sq mi)
Population: 1442000 (1990 UN est; 1992 Bhutanese government estimates give a population of over 700000)
Capital: Thimphu 27000 (1991 est)
Language: Dzongkha (Tibetan; official; 70%); Nepali (30%)
Religion: Buddhist (70%), Hindu (25%)
GOVERNMENT
Bhutan is a hereditary monarchy in which the King shares power with a Council of Ministers, the Buddhist Head Abbot and a 151-member National Assembly, comprising 106 members directly elected by universal adult suffrage for three years and other appointed members. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
The Himalaya which in Bhutan rise to 7554 m (24784 ft) at Khula Kangri cover most of Bhutan. The valleys of central Bhutan are wide and fertile. The Duars Plain, a subtropical jungle, lies along the Indian border. Climate: The climate is tropical and very wet in the Duars Plain. Temperatures get progressively lower with altitude, resulting in permanent snow cover in the north. Precipitation is heavy.
ECONOMY
Bhutan is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Over 90% of the labor force is involved in producing food crops. Currency: Ngultrum.
HISTORY
Tibetan influence over Bhutan from the 16th century was followed by Chinese overlordship (1720). Contact with British-dominated India (from 1774) led to border friction and partial annexation in 1865. In 1949 India returned this territory but assumed influence over Bhutans external affairs. In 1907 the governor of Tongsa became Bhutans first king. In the 1990s there has been discrimination against the Nepali minority.
Other major cities: Santa Cruz 615000, Cochabamba 377000 (1988 est)
Languages: Spanish (55%), Aymara (22%), Qu
chua (5%) all official
Religion: Roman Catholic (official; 95%)
GOVERNMENT
The President (who appoints a Cabinet), the 27-member Senate and the 130-member Chamber of Deputies are elected for four-year terms by universal adult suffrage.
GEOGRAPHY
The Andes whose highest point in Bolivia is Sajama (6542 m / 21 463 ft) divide into two parallel chains between which is an extensive undulating depression (the Altiplano), containing Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world. The lowlands in the east and northeast include tropical rain forests (the Llanos), subtropical plains and semiarid grasslands (the Chaco). Climate: Rainfall is negligible in the southwest, and heavy in the northeast. Temperature varies with altitude from the cold Andean summits and cool, windy Altiplano to the tropical northeast.
ECONOMY
Bolivia is relatively poor, despite being rich in natural resources such as petroleum and tin. Lack of investment, past political instability and high mining costs have retarded development. Agriculture is labor intensive, producing domestic foodstuffs (potatoes and maize), and export crops (sugar cane and cotton). The illegal cultivation of coca (for cocaine) is causing concern. Currency: Boliviano.
HISTORY
Until conquered by Spain in 1535 (see p. 410), Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire (see p. 391). As Upper Peru, Bolivia was ruled from Lima until 1776, when it became part of a viceroyalty based on Buenos Aires. A revolt against Spanish rule (1809) led to a power struggle between loyalists and nationalists, ending in independence in 1825. The remainder of the 19th century was characterized by political instability. In three devastating wars the War of the Pacific (187983), alongside Peru against Chile, and the Chaco Wars (192830 and 193335) against Paraguay Bolivia sustained great human and territorial losses. After 1935, political instability continued with a succession of military and civilian governments. Since 1982, however, Bolivia has had democratically elected governments.
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BOSNIA
BOSNIA-
HERZEGOVINA
Official name: Bosna i Hercegovina (Bosnia-Herzegovina)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 51129 km2 (19741 sq mi)
Population: 4365000 (1991 census); c. 3500000 (late 1993 est; many refugees left Bosnia in 199294 and over 200000 people have been killed in the war)
Capital: Sarajevo 526000 (city 416000; 1991 census); by 1994 the population of Sarajevo was c. 300000
Other major cities: Tuzla 130000 (1991 census; over 230000 by 1994), Banja Luka 143000 (1991 census)
Languages: Serbo-Croat a single language with two written forms
Religions: (pre-1992) Sunni Islam (44%), Serbian Orthodox (33%), Roman Catholic (17%)
GOVERNMENT
Two separate assemblies largely representing the previous national Assembly divided upon religio-linguistic grounds have evolved: the (internationally-recognized) government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (largely Muslim and Croat) based in Sarajevo and the (Bosnian Serb) government of the self-styled Republika Srpska based in Pale.
GEOGRAPHY
Ridges of the Dinaric Mountains, rising to over 1800 m (6000 ft), occupy the greater part of the country and in places form arid karst limestone plateau. The north comprises restricted lowlands in the valley of the River Sava. The tiny coastline on the Adriatic is less than 20 km (13 mi) long. Climate: Bosnia (the north) has cold winters and warm summers; Herzegovina (the south) enjoys milder winters and warmer summers.
ECONOMY
The economy has been devastated by war since 1992. Central and east Bosnia is forested. Agriculture is a major employer and sheep, maize, olives, grapes and citrous fruit are important. Bosnia has little industry. Currency: Bosnia uses Yugoslav and Croatian currency.
HISTORY
From the middle of the 12th century Bosnia came under Hungarian rule. In the 13th century, members of the Kotromanic family conquered Herzegovina and established an independent Bosnian kingdom. Bosnia declined in the 1390s and became a Turkish province in 1436. Under Ottoman rule during which many Bosnians became Muslims the region entered a long period of economic stagnation. During the 19th century, several revolts against Turkish rule were put down with ferocity. A major revolt (187576) attracted international concern, but the great powers overrode Bosnias pan-Slavic aspirations at the Congress of Berlin (187778; see p. 429) and assigned Bosnia-Herzegovina to Habsburg Austro-Hungarian rule. In Sarajevo in 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire an event that helped precipitate World War I (see p. 436).
In 1918, Bosnia became part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. Following the German invasion (1941), Bosnia was included in the Axis-controlled puppet state of Croatia. In 1945, when Yugoslavia was reorganized by Marshal Tito on Soviet lines, Bosnia-Herzegovina became a republic within the Communist federation. After the secession of Slovenia and Croatia and the beginning of the Yugoslav wars (1991), tension grew between Serbs and Croats in Bosnia. The Muslim Bosnians reasserted their separate identity. In 1992, a referendum, which was boycotted by the Serbs, gave a majority in favor of Bosnian independence.
International recognition of Bosnia-Herzegovina was gained in 1992, but Bosnian Serbs, encouraged by Serbia, seized 70% of the country, killing or expelling Muslims and Croats in a campaign of ethnic cleansing. Areas of Herzegovina inhabited by ethnic Croats were effectively brought within the orbit of Croatia. International peace and humanitarian efforts were attempted and the UN declared certain enclaves to be safe havens for Bosnian Muslims. In 1994 the Bosnian Croats and Muslims agreed to form a federation, but the Bosnian Serbs, despite pressure from the Serb (Yugoslav) government in Belgrade, refused to accept various international peace plans. Although previous ceasefires had been short-lived, a further ceasefire was agreed in 1995.
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BOTSWANA
BOTSWANA
Official name: The Republic of Botswana
Member of: UN, OAU, Commonwealth
Area: 581730 km2 (224606 sq mi)
Population: 1406000 (1993 est)
Capital: Gaborone 134000 (1991 est)
Languages: English (official), Setswana (majority; national)
Religions: Animist (over 50%), various Protestant Churches
GOVERNMENT
Thirty-four of the 40 members of the National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. Of the remainder, four are nominated by the President; the Speaker and Attorney General are non-voting members. The President, who chairs and appoints a Cabinet, is elected for five years by the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
A central plateau divides a flat near-desert in the east of Botswana from the Kalahari Desert and Okavango Swamps in the west. Climate: The climate is subtropical with extremes of heat and occasionally temperatures below freezing. Much of Botswana suffers drought.
ECONOMY
Nomadic cattle herding and the cultivation of subsistence crops occupies the majority of the labor force. The mainstay of the economy is mining for diamonds, copper-nickel and coal. Currency: Pula.
HISTORY
British missionaries had been active since 1813 in the area, which became the British protectorate of Bechuanaland in 1885. Development was slow, and many Africans had to seek work in South Africa. Nationalism was late to develop, and independence as Botswana was granted without a struggle in 1966. Under the first president, Sir Seretse Khama, and his successor, Botswana has succeeded in remaining a democracy.
blica Federativa do Brasil (the Federative Republic of Brazil)
Member of: UN, OAS, ALADI, Mercosur
Area: 8511996 km2 (3286482 sq mi)
Population: 156493000 (1993 est)
Capital: Bras
lia 1864000 (city 1841000; 1991 est)
Other major cities: S
o Paulo 18100000 (city 9700000), Rio de Janeiro 11141000 (city 5487000, Nova Iguacu 1325000), Belo Horizonte 3446000 (city 2103000), Recife 2924000 (city 1336000), P
Religion: Roman Catholic (89%), Protestant Churches (nearly 7%)
GOVERNMENT
The President who appoints a Cabinet is elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. The lower house of the National Congress (the Chamber of Deputies) has 503 members elected for four years by compulsory universal adult suffrage. The 91 members of the upper house (the Federal Senate) are elected directly for an eight-year term one third and two thirds of the senators retiring alternately every four years. Each of the 26 states has its own legislature.
GEOGRAPHY
Nearly one half of Brazil is drained by the worlds largest river system, the Amazon, whose low-lying basin is still largely covered by tropical rain forest, although pressure on land has encouraged deforestation. North of the Amazon Basin, the Guiana Highlands contain Brazils highest peak Pico da Neblina (3014 m / 9888 ft). A central plateau of savannah grasslands lies south of the Basin. In the east and south, a densely populated coastal plain adjoins the Brazilian Highlands, a vast plateau divided by fertile valleys and mountain ranges. Principal rivers: Amazon 6448 km (4007 mi), Paran
4880 km (3032 mi). Climate: The Amazon Basin and the southeast coast are tropical with heavy rainfall. The rest of Brazil is either subtropical or temperate (in the savannah). Only the northeast has inadequate rainfall.
ECONOMY
Agriculture employs about one quarter of the labor force. The principal agricultural exports include coffee, sugar cane, soyabeans, oranges, beef cattle and cocoa. Timber was important, but environmental concern is restricting its trade. Rapid industrialization since 1945 has made Brazil a major manufacturing country. While textiles, clothing and food processing are still the biggest industries, the iron and steel, chemical, petroleum-refining, cement, electrical, motor-vehicle and fertilizer industries have all attained international stature. Brazil has enormous and, in part, unexploited natural resources, including iron ore, phosphates, uranium, copper, manganese, bauxite, coal and vast hydroelectric power potential. In the last two decades, rampant inflation has hindered development. Currency: Real.
HISTORY
In 1500, Pedro Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal (see pp. 41011). Sugar was introduced in 1532. The plantations were dependent upon slaves, at first using native Indians, but gradually replacing them with Africans. In the 17th and 18th centuries, expansion south and west in search of gold and diamonds brought the Portuguese into conflict with Spain over borders. Threatened by a French invasion, the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil (1808). The regent Dom Jo
o instituted reforms, making Brazil an equal partner with Portugal. In 1821, he returned to Portugal as king, leaving his son Dom Pedro as regent. When Portugal attempted to return Brazil to colonial rule, Pedro proclaimed Brazilian independence with himself as emperor (1822). After losing a war with Argentina (1828), Pedro abdicated (1831) in favor of his son, Pedro II, whose long reign brought stability and economic growth. Opposition from landowners (angered by the abolition of slavery in 1888) and the military (who were excluded from political power) led to a coup and the end of the monarchy in 1889.
The republic was initially stable, but social unrest mounted and, in 1930, Get
lio Vargas seized power. Vargas attempted to model Brazil on Mussolinis Italy, but was overthrown by the military in 1945. Vargas was elected president again (1950), but he committed suicide to avoid impeachment (1954). Short-lived civilian governments preceded a further period of military rule (196485), during which the economy expanded rapidly, but political and social rights were restricted. Civilian rule was restored in 1985 and in 1990 Brazilians were able for vote for a president for the first time in 29 years.
Official name: Negara Brunei Darussalam (Sultanate of Brunei)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, ASEAN, Apec
Area: 5765 km2 (2226 sq mi)
Population: 275000 (1993 est)
Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan 52000 (1988 est)
Languages: Malay (official; over 50%), Chinese (26%), English
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; 66%), Buddhist (12%)
GOVERNMENT
The Sultan, a hereditary monarch, rules by decree, assisted by a Council of Ministers and a 21-member advisory council, both of which he appoints. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
Brunei consists of two coastal enclaves. The (larger) western part is hilly; the eastern enclave is more mountainous and forested. Climate: Brunei has a tropical monsoon climate with rainfall totals in excess of 2500 mm (100 in).
ECONOMY
Exploitation of substantial deposits of petroleum and natural gas has given Brunei one of the worlds highest per capita incomes. Most of the countrys food has to be imported. Currency: Brunei dollar.
HISTORY
In the 16th century the sultans of Brunei ruled all of Borneo; by the 19th century they held a vastly reduced territory that had become a pirates paradise. The British restored order and established a protectorate from 1888 to 1971. Oil was discovered in 1929. Independence was restored in 1984 under the absolute rule of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, allegedly the worlds richest man.
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BULGARIA
BULGARIA
Official name: Republika Bulgariya (Republic of Bulgaria)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 110994 km2 (42855 sq mi)
Population: 8473000 (1992 census)
Capital: Sofia (Sofiya) 1221000 (including suburbs; 1990 est)
Other major cities: Plovdiv 379000, Varna 315000, Burgas 205000, Ruse 192000, Stara Zagora 165000, Pleven 138000 (1990 est)
Languages: Bulgarian (official; 89%), Turkish (9%)
Religions: Orthodox (80%), Sunni Islam (8%)
GOVERNMENT
The 240-member National Assembly is elected under a system of proportional representation every five years by universal adult suffrage. The President who is directly elected for five years appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Assembly. The PM, in turn, chooses a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The Balkan Mountains run from east to west across central Bulgaria. To the north, low-lying hills slope down to the River Danube. To the south, a belt of lowland separates the Balkan Mountains from a high, rugged massif, which includes Musala (2925 m / 9596 ft), Bulgarias highest peak. Principal river: Danube 2850 km (1770 mi). Climate: The continental north has warm summers and cold winters, while the southeast has a more Mediterranean climate.
ECONOMY
With fertile soils, and few other natural resources, Bulgarias economy has a strong agricultural base specializing in cereals (wheat, maize, barley), fruit (grapes) and, increasingly, tobacco. For nearly half a century, production was centered on large-scale, mechanized cooperatives, but privatization of land began in 1990. Agricultural products are the basis of the food processing, wine and tobacco industries. Other major industries include engineering, fertilizers and chemicals. Tourism is increasingly important. Bulgarias trading patterns and economy were disrupted by the collapse of the Communist East European trading bloc in 1990-91. Industrial production has declined, and the country has experienced high rates of emigration, unemployment and inflation. State-run industries are being privatized. Currency: Lev.
HISTORY
The First Bulgarian Empire (6811018) grew to dominate the Balkans and, under Simeon I (893927), threatened Constantinople, but was defeated in 1014 by the Byzantine Empire (see p. 395). The Second Bulgarian Empire (11851393) succumbed gradually to the Ottoman advance (136293). Five centuries of Turkish rule reduced Bulgarians to illiterate peasantry, but folk memories of past glories remained. Most Bulgarians remained Christian, and a 19th-century national revival sought to restore an independent Church as the first step towards the restoration of nationhood. Russian intervention produced both a Bulgarian Church (1870) and state (1878). The latter was an autonomous principality until 1908, and an independent kingdom until 1946. However, the boundaries, established at the Congress of Berlin (1878), failed to satisfy the Bulgarians, who waged five wars to win the lands they had been promised in the earlier Treaty of San Stefano (1877). Victorious in the first two wars (1885 and 1912), Bulgaria was on the losing side in the final Balkan War (1913) and in World Wars I and II (191518 and 194144), and forfeited territory. After the Red Army invaded (1944), a Communist regime, tied closely to the USSR, was established and the king was exiled (1946). Following popular demonstrations in 1989, the hardline leader Todor Zhivkov (1911 ) was replaced by reformers who renounced the Communist Partys leading role. Free elections were held in 1990, since when short-lived coalitions have attempted to tackle Bulgarias severe economic problems.
publique de Burkina (Republic of Burkina) (previously known as Upper Volta)
Member of: UN, OAS, ECOWAS
Area: 274400 km2 (105946 sq mi)
Population: 9780000 (1993 est)
Capital: Ouagadougou 442000 (1985 est)
Other major city: Bobo-Dioulasso 229000 (1985 est)
Languages: French (official), Mossi (48%), Fulani (10%)
Religions: Animist (49%), Sunni Islam (40%)
GOVERNMENT
Elections by universal adult suffrage are held every four years for a 107-member Assembly and every seven years for a President.
GEOGRAPHY
The country consists of plateau about 500 m (1640 ft) high, rising to 747 m (2450 ft). Principal rivers: Black Volta 1160 km (720 mi), White Volta 640 km (400 mi). Climate: The country is hot and dry, with adequate rainfall 1000 mm (40 in) only in the savannah of the south. The north is semidesert.
ECONOMY
Burkina Faso, one of the worlds poorest states, has been severely stricken by drought in the last two decades. Nomadic herdsmen and subsistence farmers producing mainly sorghum, sugar cane and millet form the bulk of the population. Cotton, manganese and zinc are exported. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Mossi kingdoms dominated the area for centuries before French rule began in the 1890s. In the colonial era, the country was a labor reservoir for more developed colonies to the south. Since independence in 1960, the country which kept the name Upper Volta until 1984 has had a turbulent political history, with a succession of military coups. Multi-party rule was restored in 1992.
publique du Burundi/Republika yUburundi (The Republic of Burundi)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 27834 km2 (10747 sq mi)
Population: 5600000 (1993 est)
Capital: Bujumbura 227000 (1990 est)
Languages: Kirundi (majority) and French both official; Kiswahili
Religion: Roman Catholic (65%)
GOVERNMENT
A President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet and an 81-member Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
Burundi is a high plateau, rising from Lake Tanganyika in the west to 2685 m / 8809 ft. Climate: The lowlands are hot and humid. Temperatures are cooler in the mountains.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
Over 92% of the labor force is involved in agriculture, producing both subsistence crops and crops for export, such as coffee. The economy has been damaged by recurring tribal conflict. Currency: Burundi franc.
HISTORY
Burundi was a kingdom in which the minority Tutsi people dominated the Hutu majority. Colonized by Germany in 1890, it was taken over by Belgium after World War I. Independence came in 1962, after much ethnic conflict. Following a military coup in 1966, a republic was established. The killing of the deposed king in 1972 led to a massacre of the Hutu. There have since been further coups and unrest, including a wave of ethnic murders following the assassination of the democratically elected (Hutu) president by (Tutsi) army officers in 1993. Tension between Burundis Hutus and Tutsis increased after the massacre of Tutsis by Hutus in neighboring Rwanda (1994).
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CAMBODIA
CAMBODIA
Official name: Preah Reach Ana Pak Kampuchea (Kingdom of Cambodia)
Member of: UN
Area: 181035 km2 (69898 sq mi)
Population: 9280000 (1993 est)
Capital: Phnom-Penh 900000 (1991 est)
Other major city: Battambang (Batdambang) 45000 (1987 est)
Languages: Khmer (official), French
Religion: Buddhist (official; majority)
GOVERNMENT
Elections were held in 1993 for a 123-member National Assembly, which is drafting a new constitution. The monarchy was restored in 1993. The King appoints a Prime Minister who enjoys a majority in the Assembly. The PM, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Central Cambodia consists of fertile plains in the Mekong River valley and surrounding the Tonle Sap (Great Lake). To the north and east are plateau covered by forests and savannah. The mountains in the south rise to the countrys highest point, Phnum Aoral (1813 m / 5947 ft). Principal river: Mekong 4350 km (2702 mi). Climate: Cambodia is tropical and humid. The monsoon season (JuneNovember) brings heavy rain to the whole country, with annual totals as high as 5000 mm (200 in) in the mountains.
ECONOMY
Invasion, civil wars, massacres of the civilian population (197679) and the (temporary) abolition of currency (in 1978) all but destroyed the economy. Aided by the Vietnamese from 1979 to 1989, agriculture and, to a lesser extent, industry were slowly reconstructed. The rebuilding of Cambodias infrastructure increased in the 1990s but the country remains one of the worlds poorest nations. Rice yields formerly exported still fall short of Cambodias own basic needs. Currency: Riel.
HISTORY
In the early 9th century, the Khmer king Jayavarman II established the Angkorian dynasty, with a new state religion. By the 12th century, Cambodia dominated mainland Southeast Asia, but, by the 15th century, Thai and Vietnamese expansion had constricted Cambodia to the Phnom-Penh area. A French protectorate was established in 1863 and continued, apart from Japanese occupation during World War II, until independence in 1953. Throughout this period, the monarchy remained in nominal control. In 1955, King Norodom Sihanouk abdicated to lead a broad coalition government, but he could not prevent Cambodias involvement in the Vietnam War or allay US fears of his sympathies for the Communists (see pp. 45253). In 1970 he was overthrown by a pro-USA military junta, which, in turn, was attacked by Communist Khmer Rouge guerrillas, who sought to create a self-sufficient workers utopia. The Khmer Rouge were finally victorious in 1975. Under Pol Pot, they forcibly evacuated the towns and massacred over 1000000 of their compatriots. In 1978 Vietnam Cambodias traditional foe invaded, overthrowing the Khmer Rouge. The hostility between the two countries was sharpened by the Sino-Soviet split (see p. 447) in which they took different sides. After Vietnamese troops withdrew in 1989, forces of the exiled government coalition invaded. In 1991 the countrys warring factions agreed a peace plan that included free elections and UN supervision and participation in the administration of Cambodia. Although the Khmer Rouge withdrew from the plan, multi-party elections were held in 1993 and the monarchy was restored. The Khmer Rouge remain active in parts of the country.
publique unie du Cameroun (The United Republic of Cameroon)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 475442 km2 (183569 sq mi)
Population: 13100000 (1993 est)
Capital: Yaound
712000 (1987 est)
Other major cities: Douala 1117000, Nkongsamba 112000 (1987 est)
Languages: French and English (both official)
Religions: Animist (40%), Sunni Islam (20%), Roman Catholic (20%)
GOVERNMENT
The 180 members of the National Assembly are elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. The President who is also directly elected for a five-year term appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
In the west, a chain of highlands rises to the volcanic Mount Cameroon at 4069 m (13 353 ft). In the north, savannah plains dip towards Lake Chad. The coastal plains and plateau in the south and the center are covered with tropical forest. Climate: Cameroon is tropical, with hot, rainy conditions on the coast, but drier inland.
ECONOMY
Cameroon is a major producer of cocoa, and other export crops include bananas, coffee, cotton, rubber and palm oil. The diversity of Cameroons agriculture, and the rapid development of the petroleum industry, have given Cameroon one of the highest living standards in tropical Africa. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
The area fell victim to Portuguese slave traders in the late 15th century. Germany declared a protectorate over Kamerun in 1884. After World War I, Cameroon was divided between the UK and France. The French Cameroons became independent in 1960. Following a plebiscite (1961), the north of the British Cameroons merged with Nigeria; the south federated with the former French territory. A single-party state was established in 1966 and a unitary system replaced the federation in 1972. Political pluralism returned in 1992, but multi-party elections in 1993 were alleged to be fraudulent by the opposition.
Northwest Territories 3379285 km2 (1304903 sq mi), 58000 (1990 est), Yellowknife. Northwest Territories are to be divided: Northwest Territories 1178000 km2 (454900 sq mi), 36000, Yellowknife, and Nunavut 2201400 km2 (850000 sq mi), 22000, Iqaluit.
The Canadian Federal Parliament has two houses a Senate of 118 members appointed by the Governor General to represent the provinces, and the House of Commons, whose 295 members are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. A Prime Minister, commanding a majority in the House of Commons, is appointed by the Governor General, who is the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Canada. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet of Ministers which is responsible to the House. Each province has its own government and legislature.
GEOGRAPHY
Nearly one half of Canada is covered by the Laurentian (or Canadian) Shield, a relatively flat region of hard rocks stretching round Hudsons Bay. Inland, the Shield ends in a scarp that is pronounced in the east, beside the lowlands around the St Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. To the west, a line of major lakes (including Lake Winnipeg) marks the boundary with the interior plains, the Prairies. A broad belt of mountains over 800 km (500 mi) wide lies west of the plains. This western cordillera comprises the Rocky, Mackenzie, Coast and St Elias Mountains, which include Canadas highest point, Mount Logan at 5951 m (19 524 ft). A lower, discontinuous, chain of highlands borders the east of Canada, running from Baffin Island to Nova Scotia. Principal rivers: Mackenzie-Slave and Peace Rivers 4241 km (2635 mi), St Lawrence 3130 km (1945 mi), Yukon-Nisutlin 3185 km (1979 mi). Climate: Much of Canada experiences extreme temperatures, with mild summers and long, cold winters. The climate in the far north is polar. Average winter temperatures only remain above freezing point on the Pacific coast. Precipitation is heavy in the west. In the rest of the country, rainfall totals are moderate or light. Most of Canada experiences heavy winter snowfalls.
ECONOMY
Canada enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world, due, in part, to great mineral resources. There are substantial deposits of zinc, nickel, gold, silver, iron ore, uranium, copper, cobalt and lead, as well as major reserves of petroleum and natural gas, and enormous hydroelectric-power potential. These resources are the basis of such industries as petroleum refining, motor vehicles, metal refining, chemicals and iron and steel. Canada is one of the worlds leading exporters of cereals in particular, wheat from the Prairie provinces. Other agricultural interests include fruit (mainly apples), beef cattle and potatoes. Vast coniferous forests have given rise to large lumber, wood-pulp and paper industries. Rich Atlantic and Pacific fishing grounds have made Canada the worlds leading exporter of fish and seafood. The country has an important banking and insurance sector, and the economy is closely linked with that of the USA within NAFTA. Currency: Canadian dollar.
HISTORY
The ancestors of the Indians came from Asia before 20000 bc, while those of the Eskimos (Inuit) arrived in around the 6th millennium bc (see p. 390). In the 9th century, Icelanders fished Canadian waters, and after about 1000 short-lived Norse settlements were established in Newfoundland. In 1497, Cabot (see p. 405) explored the Atlantic coast for England, but Canada was claimed for France in 1534 by Cartier. In 1605, the first French colonists settled on the east coast. French settlement increased after the Company of New France was established (1627) to develop Canada. France and England were, however, in competition in Canada. England claimed Newfoundland in 1583, and, in 1670, the Hudsons Bay Company was founded to assert English control of the vast area draining into Hudsons Bay. During European wars (170163), the French and English fought in Canada. France lost Acadia (1713) and after Wolfe took Qu
bec in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham (1759) surrendered the rest of French Canada (1763; see p. 417). Britain granted toleration for the religion, institutions and language of the French Canadians.
Many of the loyalists who left the infant United States (see p. 422) settled in Upper Canada (Ontario), which was separated from French-speaking Lower Canada (Qu
bec) in 1791. Severe economic problems, and a lack of political rights, led to rebellion in 1837. After the revolt, Ontario and Qu
bec were united and granted self-government. Settlement spread rapidly west, but there was no national authority to develop the area between Ontario and British Columbia. Britain, anxious to be rid of responsibility for Canada, encouraged confederation, and in 1867 Ontario, Qu
bec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia formed the Dominion of Canada. Other provinces joined (18701905), but Newfoundland did not become part of Canada until 1949. The late 19th century saw important mineral finds, such as the Klondike gold rush, and the western provinces developed rapidly.
In World War I, Canadian forces distinguished themselves at Vimy Ridge, and Canada won itself a place as a separate nation at the peace conferences after the war. The Statute of Westminster (1931) recognized Canadian independence. The Depression of the 1930s (see p. 441) had a severe impact on Canada Newfoundland, for example, went bankrupt. Canada played an important role in World War II and the Korean War, and was a founder member of NATO. Since the 1970s there has been friction over the use and status of the French language. Since constitutional amendments recognizing Qu
becs special status were rejected in 1990, separatist pressure has increased in the province.
The 79-member National Assembly is elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The Assembly elects a President also for five years who appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Cape Verde consists of ten volcanic, semiarid islands. Fogo Island, with its active volcano, reaches 2829 m (9281 ft). Climate: Cooled by northeast winds, temperatures seldom exceed 27
C (80
F). Rainfall is low.
ECONOMY
Lack of surface water hinders agriculture, and over 90% of Cape Verdes food has to be imported. Money sent back by over 700000 Cape Verdeans living abroad is vital to the economy. Currency: Cape Verde escudo.
HISTORY
Settled by the Portuguese in the mid-15th century, the islands became a center of the slave trade. A very mixed and impoverished population resulted. Independence was achieved in 1975 under a Marxist-Leninist regime. A free-market economy and a multi-party system were introduced in 1990.
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CENTRALA
CENTRAL AFRICAN
REPUBLIC
Official name: La R
publique centrafricaine (The Central African Republic)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 622436 km2 (240323 sq mi)
Population: 2999000 (1993 est)
Capital: Bangui 598000 (1988 est)
Other major city: Bambari 52000 (1987 est)
Languages: French (official), Sangho (national)
Religions: various Protestant Churches (48%), Roman Catholic (32%), animist (under 20%)
GOVERNMENT
The President who appoints a Council of Ministers is elected for a six-year term by universal adult suffrage. The 85-member National Assembly is elected directly for a five-year term.
GEOGRAPHY
The country is a low plateau, rising along the border with Sudan to the Bongos Mountains and in the west to the Monts Karre. Climate: The north is savannah, with little rain between November and March. The south is equatorial with high temperatures and heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
Subsistence farming dominates, although cotton and coffee are grown for export. Diamonds contribute over 30% of the states foreign earnings. The country is poor, and largely owing to mismanagement under Bokassa its economy has declined since independence. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
French influence began in 1889, and the region became the French colony of Oubangi-Chari in 1903. It suffered greatly from the activities of companies that were granted exclusive rights to large areas of the colony. Independence as the Central African Republic was gained in 1960. Jean-B
del Bokassa took power in a coup in 1965. In 1976 he declared himself emperor and was crowned in an extravagantly expensive ceremony. Revolts by students and schoolchildren helped to end his murderous regime in 1979. Multi-party elections were held in 1993.
Other major cities: Sarh 130000, Moundou 118000 (1992 est)
Languages: French and Arabic (both official); over 100 local languages
Religions: Sunni Islam (50%), animist (25%)
GOVERNMENT
Following a military coup in 1991, a transitional government system was introduced in 1993 when a national conference chose a 57-member Higher Transitional Council.
GEOGRAPHY
Deserts in the north include the Tibesti Mountains, where the highest point Emi Koussi reaches 3415 m (11204 ft). Savannah and semidesert in the center slope down to Lake Chad. The Oubangui Plateau in the south is covered by tropical rain forest. Climate: Chad is hot and dry in the north, and tropical in the south.
ECONOMY
Chad one of the poorest countries in the world has been wracked by civil war and drought. With few natural resources, it relies on subsistence farming, exports of cotton and on foreign aid. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Part of the medieval African empire of Kanem-Bornu, the area around Lake Chad became French in the late 19th century. The French conquest of the north was not completed until 1916. Since independence in 1960, Chad has been torn apart by a bitter civil war between the Muslim Arab north and the Christian and animist Black African south. Libya and France intervened forcefully on several occasions, but neither was able to achieve its aims. In 1987, an uneasy ceasefire was declared, but, following another civil war, military regimes took power in 1990 and 1991 and unrest continues.
Religions: Roman Catholic (79%), various Protestant Churches (6%)
External territory: Chile claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica
GOVERNMENT
Executive power is held by the President, who appoints a Cabinet of Ministers. The President is elected by universal adult suffrage for a single eight-year term. The National Congress has an upper chamber of 38 senators directly elected for eight years and 10 senators appointed by the President, and a lower chamber of 120 deputies elected for four years by universal adult suffrage.
GEOGRAPHY
For almost 4000 km (2500 mi), the Andes form the eastern boundary of Chile. They rise to 6895 m (22 588 ft) at Ojos del Solado. Parallel to the Andes is a depression, in which lies the Atacama Desert in the north and fertile plains in the center. A mountain chain runs between the depression and the coast, and, in the south, forms a string of islands. Climate: The temperate climate is influenced by the cool Humboldt Current. Rainfall ranges from being negligible in the Atacama Desert in the north to heavy over 2300 mm (90 in) in the south.
ECONOMY
The main agricultural region is the central plains, where cereals (mainly wheat and maize) and fruit (notably grapes) are important. Major fishing grounds yield one of the worlds largest catches of fish. There are considerable mineral resources and great hydroelectric-power potential. Chile is a leading exporter of copper, and has major reserves of iron ore, coal, petroleum and natural gas. Industry includes food processing, timber industries and textiles. Chile has achieved high economic growth rates in the 1990s and has developed important trading links with other Pacific Rim countries. Currency: Chilean peso.
HISTORY
During the 15th century the Incas (see p. 391) moved into Chile, but were halted by the fierce Araucanian Indians. The Spanish approached Chile from Peru in 1537, and Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago in 1541. Continuing south, Valdivia was killed by the Araucanians (1554), who were not finally defeated until the late 19th century. In 1810, a revolt led by Bernardo OHiggins (?17781842) broke out against Spain. In 1817, troops led by Jos
de San Mart
n crossed from Argentina to aid OHiggins, who led Chile to independence in 1818. OHiggins offended the powerful landowners and was exiled in 1823. For the next century during which Chile gained territory in two wars against Peru and Bolivia conservative landowners held power.
Between the late 1920s and the 1940s, Chile was governed by liberal and radical regimes, but social and economic change was slow. The election of the Christian Democrats (1964) brought some reforms, but not until Salvador Allendes Marxist government was elected in 1970 were major changes including land reform realized. Chile was polarized between right and left, and political chaos resulted in a US-backed military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet in 1973. Tens of thousands of leftists were killed, imprisoned or exiled by the junta. Pinochet reversed Allendes reforms, restructuring the economy in favor of landowners and exporters. Pressure on the dictatorship from within Chile and abroad brought the return of democratic rule in 1990.
Official name: Chung-hua Min Kuo (also transliterated as Zhonghua Minguo) (The Republic of China)
Member of: Apec
Area: 35981 km2 (13893 sq mi)
Population: 20926000 (1993 est)
Capital: Taipei 2720000 (1993 est)
Other major cities: Kaohsiung 1406000, Taichung 802000 (1993 est)
Language: Chinese (northern or Amoy dialect, popularly known as Mandarin)
Religions: various Chinese folk religions (over 48%; includes Daoism), Buddhist (over 40%)
GOVERNMENT
The 161-member Parliament (the Legislative Yuan) comprises 125 members elected by universal adult suffrage for six years and additional indirectly elected members. The 325-member National Assembly also directly elected for six years has no legislative powers, other than to elect the President or to amend the constitution. The President, who serves for six years, appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Taiwan is an island 160 km (100 mi) off the southeast coast of China. Its mountainous interior rises in the south to Yu Shan at 3997 m (13113 ft). Most of the inhabitants live on the coastal plain in the west. Climate: Taiwan which is subtropical in the north, and tropical in the south has rainy summers and mild winters. Tropical cyclones (typhoons) may occur between July and September.
ECONOMY
Despite Taiwans diplomatic isolation, the island is a major international trading nation, exporting machinery, electronics, and textiles. Mineral resources include coal, marble, gold, petroleum and natural gas. Taiwan has achieved a GDP over one half that of its giant neighbor, mainland China. Despite the fertility of the soil, agriculture has declined in relative importance. Currency: New Taiwan dollar.
HISTORY
Taiwan was originally inhabited by Malays and Polynesians. The first settlers from China came in the 7th century. Named Formosa (beautiful) by the Portuguese in 1590, the island was the object of Spanish-Portuguese rivalry and then briefly (166283) independent under the Chinese general Koxinga. A period of Chinese rule and renewed migration lasted until a Japanese takeover (1895) began the modernization of agriculture, transport and education. In 1949, the Nationalist forces of Jiang Jie Shi (Chiang Kai-shek) were driven onto Taiwan by the Communist victory on the mainland (see pp. 44647). Under US protection, the resulting authoritarian regime on Taiwan declared itself the Republic of China, and claimed to be the legitimate government of all China. Americas rapprochement with the mainland Peoples Republic of China (see p. 447) lost Taiwan its UN seat in 1971 and US recognition in 1978. In 1991 Taiwan effectively recognized Communist China, but the islands international status remains problematic. By the late 1980s Taiwan was moving cautiously towards democracy, and in 1988 a native Taiwanese was elected President. A new constitution in 1991 marked the transition to a more Taiwanese, less Chinese, identity.
n 2121000 (city 1595000), Cali 1657000, Barranquilla 1034000, Cartagena 707000 (city 688000) (all including suburbs; 1992 est)
Languages: Spanish (official; 99%), over 150 Indian languages
Religion: Roman Catholic (official; 93%)
GOVERNMENT
A President (who appoints a Cabinet of 13 members), a Senate of 102 members and a House of Representatives of 161 members are elected for a four-year term by universal adult suffrage.
GEOGRAPHY
The Andes run north to south through Colombia, reaching their highest point in the country at Pico Crist
bal Col
n (5775 m / 18 947 ft). The greater part of Colombia lies east of the Andes in the mainly treeless grassland plains of the Llanos and the tropical Amazonian rain forest. A coastal plain lies to the west of the mountains. Climate: The lower Andes are temperate; the mountains over 4000 m (13 100 ft) experience perpetual snow. The rest of the country is tropical. The coasts and the Amazonian Basin are hot and humid, with heavy rainfall. The Llanos have a savannah climate.
ECONOMY
Colombian coffee is the backbone of the countrys exports; other cash crops include bananas, sugar cane, flowers and tobacco. However, profits from the illegal cultivation and export of marijuana and cocaine probably produce the greatest revenue. Mineral resources include iron ore, silver, coal, petroleum and natural gas. The main industries are food processing, petroleum refining, fertilizers, cement, textiles, clothing, and iron and steel. Currency: Colombian peso.
HISTORY
The Spanish reached Colombias north coast in 1500, and founded their first settlement in 1525. Meeting little resistance from the Indians, the conquistadores advanced inland reaching Bogot
in 1538. In 1718 the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada was established at Bogot
. The struggle for independence from Spain (180919) was fierce and bloody. Almost from that time, the centralizing pro-clerical Conservatives and the federalizing anti-clerical Liberals have struggled for control leading to civil wars (18991902 and 194857) in which 400000 people died. From 1957 to 1974 there were agreements between the Liberals and Conservatives to protect a fragile democracy threatened by left-wing guerrillas and right-wing death squads. In the early 1990s, a combination of security measures and amnesties curbed the activities of powerful drug-trafficking cartels, and left-wing guerrillas abandoned their armed struggle in favor of legitimate political activity.# Although the infamous Medell
n drugs cartel was curtailed in the early 1990s, a new drugs cartel has risen to take its place in Cali.
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COMOROS
COMOROS
Official name: La R
publique f
rale islamique des Comores (The Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 1862 km2 (719 sq mi) (excluding Mayotte, which is administered by France)
Population: 479000 (1991 est; excluding Mayotte)
Capital: Moroni 60000 (city 22000; 1987 est)
Languages: French and Arabic both official; Comoran (a blend of Swahili and Arabic)
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; 99%)
GOVERNMENT
The President who is elected for a six-year term by universal adult suffrage appoints a Council of Ministers. The 42 members of the Federal Assembly are directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Ngazidja (Grande Comore), the largest island, is dry and rocky, rising to an active volcano, Mount Kartala (2361 m / 7746 ft). Ndzouani (Anjouan) is a heavily-eroded volcanic massif. Moili (Moh
li) is a forested plateau with fertile valleys. Climate: The tropical climate of the Comoros is dry from May to October, but with heavy rain for the rest of the year.
ECONOMY
Poor and eroded soils, overpopulation and few resources combine to make these underdeveloped islands one of the worlds poorest countries. Subsistence farming occupies the majority of the population, although vanilla, cloves and ylang-ylang are produced for export. Currency: Comoran franc.
HISTORY
The four Comoran islands became a French colony in 1912. In a referendum in 1974, three islands voted to become independent, which they declared themselves without French agreement. The fourth island, Mayotte, voted against independence, and remains under French rule. From 1978 to 1990, when free elections were held, the republic was an Islamic single-party state.
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CONGO
CONGO
Official name: La R
publique du Congo (The Republic of the Congo)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 342000 km2 (132047 sq mi)
Population: 2772000 (1993 est)
Capital: Brazzaville 940000 (1992 est)
Other major city: Pointe-Noire 576000 (1992 est)
Languages: French (official), Lingala patois (50%), Monokutuba patois (over 40%), Kongo (45%), Teke (20%)
Religions: Roman Catholic (53%), animist (25%)
GOVERNMENT
The 125-member National Assembly, 60-member Senate and the President are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Premier and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Behind a narrow coastal plain, the plateau of the interior are covered by tropical rain forests and rise over 700 m (2300 ft). Principal river: Za
re (Congo) 4700 km (2920 mi). Climate: The Congos tropical climate is hot and humid. Rainfall exceeds 1200 mm (47 in) a year.
ECONOMY
Petroleum and timber are the mainstays of the economy, which was centrally planned until 1991. Congo is crippled by external debt. Subsistence agriculture chiefly for cassava occupies over 30% of the labor force. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Portuguese slave traders were active in the region from the 15th century. In the 1880s, the explorer Brazza placed the kingdom of the Teke people under French protection, and in 1905 the region became the colony of Moyen-Congo. Independence was gained in 1960. A Marxist-Leninist state was established in 1963, but a multi-party system was restored in 1991.
Other major cities: Limon 51000, Alajuela 45000 (1990 est)
Language: Spanish (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (official)
GOVERNMENT
Executive power is vested in the President, who appoints a Cabinet of Ministers. The President and the 57-member Legislative Assembly are elected for four-year terms by compulsory universal adult suffrage.
GEOGRAPHY
Between a narrow plain on the Pacific coast and a wider plain along the Caribbean coast rise a central plateau and mountain ranges whose highest point is Chirrip
Grande at 3820 m (12533 ft). Climate: Rainfall is heavy along the Caribbean coast, but the Pacific coast is drier. Temperatures are warm in the lowlands, cooler in the highlands.
ECONOMY
Coffee is Costa Ricas major export. Bananas, sugar cane, beef cattle, cocoa and timber are also important. Currency: Costa Rican colon.
HISTORY
Columbus reached Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502. The area was under Spanish rule as part of Guatemala until 1821. Although it was part of the Central American Federation (182338), Costa Rica developed largely in isolation from its neighbors. Dominated by small farms, Costa Rica prospered, attracted European immigrants and developed a stable democracy. Following a brief civil war in 1948, the army was disbanded. Costa Rica has since adopted the role of peacemaker in Central America.
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COTE_D_I
COTE DIVOIRE
Official name: La R
publique de la C
te dIvoire (The Republic of the Ivory Coast). Since 1986 C
te dIvoire has been the only official name.
Member of: UN, OAU, ECOWAS
Area: 322462 km2 (124503 sq mi)
Population: 13460000 (1993 est)
Capitals: Yamoussoukro (capital de jure and administrative capital) 120000, Abidjan (legislative capital)
1850000
Other major cities: Bouak
220000 (1987 est)
Languages: French (official), Bete (20%), Senufo (14%)
Religions: Animist (60%), Christian (mainly Roman Catholic; 20%), Sunni Islam (20%)
GOVERNMENT
The President who is elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers. The 175-member National Assembly is also directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
The north is a savannah-covered plateau rising to 1752 m (5748 ft) at Mont Nimba. In the south, tropical rain forest, increasingly cleared for plantations, ends at the narrow coastal plain. Climate: The south is equatorial with high temperatures and heavy rainfall; the north has similar temperatures but is drier.
ECONOMY
The country depends on exports of cocoa, coffee and timber, and has suffered since the 1980s when prices for these commodities fell. Natural resources include petroleum, natural gas and iron ore. Political stability has helped economic growth. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
In the 16th century, Europeans established posts in the area for trading in ivory and slaves. Colonized by France in the 19th century, the Ivory Coast became a relatively prosperous part of French West Africa. Independence was achieved in 1960 under the presidency of F
lix Houphou
t-Boigny (190594), who kept close links with France in return for aid and military assistance. After over a decade of single-party rule, multi-party elections were held in 1990, but the opposition claimed electoral fraud.
Official name: Republika Hrvatska (The Republic of Croatia)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 56538 km2 (21829 sq mi), including the area (about one third) that is controlled by Serb forces
Population: 4820000 (1993 est)
Capital: Zagreb 934000 (city 707000; 1991 census)
Other major cities: Split 207000 (city 189000), Rijeka 206000 (city 168000) (1991 census)
Languages: Croat (75%) the form of Serbo-Croat written in the Latin alphabet; Serbian (24%)
Religions: Roman Catholic majority, Orthodox minority
GOVERNMENT
The Assembly (Sabor) comprises a 138-member Chamber of Representatives (the lower house) elected by universal adult suffrage for four years and a 63-member Chamber of Municipalities (the upper house), comprising three members from each of the 21 counties into which the republic is divided. An executive President is directly elected for five years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers who enjoy a majority in the lower house.
GEOGRAPHY
Croatia comprises plains in the east (Slavonia), hills around Zagreb, and barren limestone ranges running parallel to the Dalmatian coast. The area around Dubrovnik is detached from the rest of Croatia. Climate: The interior is colder and drier than the Mediterranean coast.
ECONOMY
Manufacturing (aluminium, textiles and chemicals), mining (bauxite) and oil dominate the economy. Slavonia grows cereals, potatoes and sugar beet. The economy has been damaged by the Yugoslav wars since 1991, and the lucrative Dalmatian tourist industry has collapsed. Currency: Kuna.
HISTORY
By the 10th century the Croat kingdom occupied most of modern Croatia. In 1102 Croatia passed to the Hungarian crown. After Slavonia was conquered by the Ottoman Turks (1526), the rump of Croatia came under the rule of the (Austrian) Habsburgs, who established a Serb military frontier zone (Krajina) against further Ottoman expansion. Dalmatia came under Venetian rule in the 15th century, was annexed by Napoleon I in 1808, and was ceded to Austria in 1815. Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was an independent city-state from the 9th century to 1808. The Croats strove to preserve their identity within Habsburg Hungary and attempted secession during the 184849 Hungarian revolt. By 1900 a Croat national revival looked increasingly to independent Serbia to create a South (Yugo) Slav state.
After World War I when the Habsburg Empire was dissolved (1918), the Croats joined the Serbs, Slovenes and Montenegrins in the state that was to become Yugoslavia in 1929. However, the Croats soon resented the highly centralized Serb-dominated kingdom. Following the German invasion (1941), the occupying Axis powers set up an independent Croat puppet state that adopted anti-Serb policies. In 1945 Croatia was reintegrated into a federal Communist Yugoslav state by Marshal Tito, but after Titos death (1980), the Yugoslav experiment faltered in economic and nationalist crises. Separatists came to power in Croatia in free elections (1990) and declared independence (1991). Serb insurgents, backed by the Yugoslav federal army, occupied 30% of Croatia, including those areas with an ethnic Serb majority Krajina and parts of Slavonia. The fierce Serbo-Croat war came to an uneasy halt in 1992 after Croatian independence had gained widespread diplomatic recognition and a UN monitoring force was agreed. In 1995 Croatia announced its intention of asking the UN to leave.
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Official name: La Rep
blica de Cuba (The Republic of Cuba)
Member of: UN, OAS (suspended)
Area: 110860 km2 (42803 sq mi)
Population: 10890000 (1993 est)
Capital: Havana (La Habana) 2096000 (including suburbs; 1990 est)
Other major cities: Santiago de Cuba 405000, Camag
ey 283000, Holgu
n 228000, Guant
namo 200000 (1990 est)
Language: Spanish
Religion: Roman Catholic (39%)
GOVERNMENT
The Communist Party is the only legal political party. The 589-member National Assembly is directly elected for two and a half years by citizens aged 16 and over. The Assembly elects 31 of its members to form the Council of State, whose President as head of state and government appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Three ranges of hills and mountains run east to west across Cuba, rising to 1971 m (6467 ft) at Pico Turquino. Climate: The climate is semitropical. Temperatures average 26
C (78
F), and rainfall is heavy. The island is subject to hurricanes.
ECONOMY
Sugar (the leading export), tobacco and coffee are the main crops. State-controlled farms occupy most of the land but are unable to meet Cubas food needs. Rationing is in force. Nickel is Cubas second most important export. The end of the Communist trade bloc and of Soviet subsidies brought the Cuban economy to the verge of collapse. The value of the currency is plummeting in real terms and severe fuel shortages have hit both transport and industry. Currency: Cuban peso.
HISTORY
Indian tribes inhabited Cuba when Columbus claimed the island for Spain (1492). Development was slow until the 18th century, when black slaves were imported to work the sugar plantations. The first war for independence (186878) was unsuccessful. The USA intervened in a second uprising (189598), forcing Spain to relinquish the island, but independence was not confirmed until after two periods of American administration (18991901 and 190609).
Under a succession of corrupt governments, the majority of Cubans suffered abject poverty. In 1959, the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista was overthrown by the guerrilla leader Fidel Castro (1926 ), whose revolutionary movement merged with the Communist Party to remodel Cuba on Soviet lines. In 1961, US-backed Cuban exiles attempted to invade at the Bay of Pigs, and relations with America deteriorated further in 1962 when the installation of Soviet missiles on Cuba almost led to world war. Castro encouraged revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, and his troops bolstered Marxist governments in Africa. The upheavals in the USSR and Eastern Europe (198991) left Cuba increasingly isolated as a hardline Marxist state. In 1994, a flood of refugees from Cuba to the USA raised tension between the two countries.
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CYPRUS
CYPRUS
Official name: Kypriaki Dimokratia (in Greek) or Kibris Cumhuriyeti (in Turkish) (The Republic of Cyprus)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OSCE
Area: 9251 km2 (3572 sq mi) of which 3355 km2 (1295 sq mi) are in the Turkish-controlled zone
Population: 756000 (1992 est) of which 186000 are in the Turkish-controlled zone
Capital: Nicosia (Levkosia) 209000 (including 40000 in the Turkish-controlled zone) (1990 est)
Other major cities: Limassol (Lemesos) 135000, Larnaca (Larnax) 63000 (1990 est)
Languages: Greek (74%), Turkish (24%; including settlers from the Turkish mainland)
Religions: Greek Orthodox (75%), Sunni Islam (over 20%; including settlers from the Turkish mainland)
GOVERNMENT
A 56-member House of Representatives is elected by universal adult suffrage in the Greek Cypriot community for five years an additional 24 seats for the Turkish Cypriot community remain unfilled. The President who appoints a Council of Ministers is elected from the Greek Cypriot community by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term. There is provision in the constitution for a Vice President to be similarly elected from the Turkish Cypriot community. In 1975, the administration of the Turkish Cypriot community unilaterally established the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is unrecognized internationally except by Turkey.
GEOGRAPHY
The south of the island is covered by the Troodos Mountains, which rise to Mount Olympus, 1951 m (6399 ft). Running east to west across the center of Cyprus is a fertile plain, north of which are the Kyrenian Mountains and the Karpas Peninsula. Climate: Cyprus has a Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers and mild, variable winters.
ECONOMY
Potatoes, fruit, wine, clothing and textiles are exported from the Greek Cypriot area, in which ports, resorts and an international airport have been constructed to replace facilities lost since partition. The Turkish Cypriot area which exports fruit, potatoes and tobacco relies heavily on aid from Turkey. Tourism is important in both zones. Currency: Cyprus pound; Turkish currency is used in the Turkish-controlled zone.
HISTORY
Greek settlements were established on Cyprus in the middle of the second millennium bc. The island was ruled by the Egyptians (from 323 bc) and was part of the Roman and Byzantine Empires. Captured by Crusaders (1191), Cyprus was an independent kingdom until 1489, when Venice acquired the island. In 1571, the Ottoman Turks took Cyprus. British administration was established in 1878. During the 1950s, Greek Cypriots, led by Archbishop (later President) Makarios III (191377), campaigned for Enosis (union with Greece). The Turkish Cypriots advocated partition, but following a terrorist campaign by the Greek Cypriot EOKA movement, a compromise was agreed. In 1960, Cyprus became an independent republic. Power was shared by the two communities, but the agreement broke down in 1963. UN forces intervened to stop intercommunal fighting. The Turkish Cypriots set up their own administration. When pro-Enosis officers staged a coup (1974), Turkey invaded the north. Cyprus was effectively partitioned. Over 200000 Greek Cypriots were displaced from the north, into which settlers arrived from Turkey. Since then, UN forces have manned the Attila Line between the Greek south and Turkish north. Attempts have been made to reunite Cyprus as a federal state. Cyprus is an associate member of the EU/EC and has applied for full membership.
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CZECH_RE
CZECH REPUBLIC
Official name: Cesk
Republika (Czech Republic)
Member of: UN, OSCE, CEFTA
Area: 78864 km2 (30450 sq mi)
Population: 10340000 (1993 est)
Capital: Prague (Praha) 1212000 (1991 census)
Other major cities: Brno 388000, Ostrava 328000 (1991 census)
Language: Czech
Religions: Roman Catholic (39%), various Protestant Churches (4%)
GOVERNMENT
The 200-member Chamber of Deputies (lower house) is elected by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation for four years. The 81-member Senate is directly elected for six years. A President, whose role is largely ceremonial, is elected for a four-year term by an electoral college comprising both houses of Parliament. The President appoints a Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, who are responsible to the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
In the west (Bohemia), the Elbe basin is ringed on three sides by uplands: the Bohemian Forest in the south and west, the Ore Mountains and the Giant Mountains in the north and the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands in the east. The Moravian plain lies to the east of Bohemia. The highest point is Snezka at 1603 m (5259 ft). Climate: The climate is continental with cold winters and warm summers.
ECONOMY
Apart from coal, there are few mineral resources, but the country is heavily industrialized and some areas have suffered heavy pollution. Manufactures include industrial machinery, motor vehicles and consumer goods. Much of industry has been privatized. The Czech Republic has attracted considerable foreign investment (80% German) and its economy is increasingly linked to that of Germany. The timber industry is important. The main crops include wheat, maize, potatoes, barley and sugar beet. Tourism, particularly to Prague, is becoming important. Currency: Czech Koruna.
HISTORY
Slavs first populated the region from the 5th century ad. A Moravian empire flourished in the 9th century, and, after its decline in the 11th century, the kingdom of Bohemia rose. In the 14th century, the greatest of the Czech kings, Charles IV, became Holy Roman Emperor. His support of Church reform eventually led to the Bohemian revolt against Rome known as the Hussite movement (see p. 403). In 1526, Bohemia fell under Habsburg rule (see p. 410). The determination of the Catholic Habsburgs to control the mainly Protestant Czech nobility led to the Thirty Years War (see p. 409). In 1620, the Czechs were defeated and remained under Austrian rule until 1918.
Nationalism grew in the 19th century, and on the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Czechs and Slovaks united in an independent state (1918) largely due to the efforts of Thomas Masaryk, who became Czechoslovakias first president. In 1938, Hitler demanded that Germany be granted the Sudetenland, where ethnic Germans predominated. Lacking allies, Czechoslovakia was dismembered (see p. 443). The Nazi occupation included the massacre of the inhabitants of Lidice (1942). Following liberation (1945), a coalition government was formed, but the Communists staged a takeover in 1948. In 1968, moves by Party Secretary Alexander Dubcek to introduce political reforms met with Soviet disapproval, and invasion by Czechoslovakias Warsaw Pact allies. In 1989, student demonstrations developed into a peaceful revolution led by the Civic Forum movement. Faced by overwhelming public opposition, the Communist Party renounced its leading role and hardline leaders were replaced by reformers. A coalition government was appointed and Civic Forums leader the playwright Vaclav Havel was elected president. Free multi-party elections were held (1990), Soviet forces withdrawn (1991) and Czechoslovakia strengthened ties with Western Europe. Increased Slovak nationalism led to the division of the country in 1993 in the peaceful Velvet Divorce. The Czech Republic is an associate member of the EU/EC and aspires to full membership.
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DENMARK
DENMARK
Official name: Kongeriget Danmark (Kingdom of Denmark)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, NATO, OSCE, OECD, WEU (observer)
Area: 43094 km2 (16639 sq mi) metropolitan Denmark, excluding dependencies
lborg) 157000, Esbjerg 82000 (all including suburbs; 1992 est)
Language: Danish (99%; official)
Religion: Evangelical Lutheran (89%; official)
Danish autonomous dependencies: (with areas, populations and capitals):
Faeroe Islands 1399 km2 (540 sq mi), 48400 (1991 est), T
rshavn.
Greenland 2175600 km2 (840000 sq mi), 55000 (1991 est), Nuuk (formerly known as Godthab).
GOVERNMENT
Denmark is a constitutional monarchy. The 179-member Parliament (Folketing) is elected by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation for a four-year term. Two members are elected from both of the autonomous dependencies. The Monarch appoints a Prime Minister, who commands a majority in the Folketing. The PM appoints a State Council (Cabinet), which is responsible to the Folketing.
GEOGRAPHY
Denmark is a lowland of glacial moraine only Bornholm, in the Baltic, has ancient hard surface rocks. The highest point, Yding Skovh
j at 173 m (568 ft) is on the Jutland Peninsula, which occupies about two thirds of Denmark. Over 400 islands, of which 97 are inhabited, lie to the east of Jutland. The largest islands are Zealand (Sjaelland), Fyn and Lolland. Climate: The climate is temperate and moist, with mild summers and cold winters. Bornholm to the east is more extreme.
ECONOMY
Denmark has a high standard of living, but few natural resources. Agriculture is organized on a cooperative basis, and produces cheese and other dairy products, bacon and beef all mainly for export. About 20% of the labor force is involved in manufacturing, with iron and metal working, food processing, brewing, engineering and chemicals as the major industries. Petroleum and natural gas from the North Sea have reduced the costly burden of fuel imports. Currency: Danish krone.
HISTORY
Denmark became a distinct state in the 10th century. The Danes participated in the Viking invasions, which saw settlers and raiders penetrate much of Western Europe, and, under Cnut, a short-lived Anglo-Danish empire was established (see p. 397). Medieval Denmark was beset by territorial wars and dynastic difficulties the monarchy remained elective until 1660. Norway was acquired in 1380, and under the Kalmar Agreement (1397), Queen Margrethe I united all three Scandinavian kingdoms, but Sweden reasserted its independence in 1583. The Roman Catholic faction was defeated in a civil war (153436), and Lutheranism became the state religion. In the 17th century, Denmark was overshadowed by Sweden, its rival for control of the entrance to the Baltic. The Danes were defeated by Imperial forces in the Thirty Years War (1626; see p. 409), but a decline in Swedish power after 1660 allowed Denmark to reassert itself.
Colonial ventures in the 18th century brought prosperity. An alliance with Napoleonic France proved disastrous, and in 1815 Denmark lost Norway to Sweden. The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein became the subject of a complicated dispute with Prussia (see p. 428). After a short war with Prussia and Austria (1864), Denmark surrendered the duchies, but north Schleswig was returned to Denmark in 1920. In the 20th century, Denmarks last colonial possessions were either sold (Virgin Islands) or given independence (Iceland) or autonomy (Greenland). The country was occupied by Nazi Germany (194045), and has since been a member of the Western Alliance. From the 1960s, Denmarks economic and political ties have increasingly been with Germany and the UK, rather than the traditional links with Norway and Sweden. Thus, in 1973, Denmark joined the EC, but the political consequence of joining the Common Market has been a further fragmentation of the countrys political parties.
Official name: Jumhuriya Jibuti (The Republic of Djibouti)
Member of: UN, OAU, Arab League
Area: 23200 km2 (8950 sq mi)
Population: 565000 (1993 est), plus over 130000 refugees from Somalia
Capital: Djibouti 450000 (1989 est)
Languages: Arabic and French (both official); Somali (Issa; 37%)
Religion: Sunni Islam (96%; official)
GOVERNMENT
The 65-member Chamber of Deputies and a President are elected by universal adult suffrage respectively for five and six years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, who are responsible to him.
GEOGRAPHY
Djibouti is a low-lying desert below sea level in two basins but rising to 2062 m (6768 ft) in the north. Climate: Djibouti is extremely hot and dry, with rainfall under 125 mm (5 in) on the coast.
ECONOMY
Lack of water largely restricts agriculture to grazing sheep and goats. The economy depends on the expanding seaport and railway, which both serve Ethiopia. Currency: Djibouti franc.
HISTORY
Islam came to the area in the 9th century. France acquired a port in 1862 and established the colony of French Somaliland in 1888. In the 1950s and 1970s, the Afar tribe and Europeans voted to remain French, while the Issas (Somalis) opted for independence. In 1977, the territory became the Republic of Djibouti, but the new state has suffered ethnic unrest and drought. From 1981 to 1992 Djibouti was a one-party state.
Every five years, 21 members of the House of Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage and nine are appointed by the President, who is elected for a five-year term by the House. The President appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Dominica is surrounded by steep cliffs. Its forested mountainous interior rises to Morne Diablotin, 1447 m (4747 ft). Climate: Dominica has a tropical climate with little seasonal variation and very heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
Dominica is a poor island. It produces bananas, timber and coconuts, and exports water to drier neighbors. Tourism is increasing in importance. Currency: East Caribbean dollar.
HISTORY
Discovered by Columbus (1493), Dominica was occupied by Carib Indians, who strongly resisted European settlement. Dominica was disputed by England and France, changing hands several times (16321783). Black slaves were imported to work plantations. Dominica was a member of the West Indies Federation (195862), gained autonomy in 1967 and independence in 1978.
Other major city: Santiago de los Caballeros 467000 (including suburbs; 1989 est)
Language: Spanish (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (over 90%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and the National Congress a 30-member Senate and a 120-member Chamber of Deputies are elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
The republic is the eastern two thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The fertile Cibao Valley in the north is an important agricultural region. Most of the rest of the country is mountainous, rising to Pico Duarte at 3175 m (10417 ft). Climate: The climate is largely subtropical, but it is cooler in the mountains. Rainfall is heavy, but the west and southwest are arid. Hurricanes are a hazard.
ECONOMY
Sugar is the traditional mainstay of the economy, but nickel and iron ore have become the principal exports. Tourism is now the greatest foreign-currency earner. Currency: Peso oro.
HISTORY
The island of Hispaniola was discovered in 1492 by Columbus. In 1697 Spain ceded the west of the island (Haiti) to France, and from 1795 the whole island was French. Returned to Spanish rule in 1809, the east declared independence as the Dominican Republic in 1821, but was annexed by Haiti (182244). The 19th century witnessed a succession of tyrants, and by 1900 the republic was bankrupt and in chaos. The USA intervened (191624). Rafael Trujillo (18911961) became president in 1930 and ruthlessly suppressed opposition. He was assassinated in 1961. Civil war in 1965 ended after intervention by US and Latin American troops. Since then, an infant democracy has faced grave economic problems.
Other major cities: Guayaquil 1764000 (city1531000), Cuenca 272000 (city 195000) (1990 census)
Language: Spanish (official; 93%), Qu
Religion: Roman Catholic (93%)
GOVERNMENT
The President is elected by compulsory universal adult suffrage for a single term of four years. The 77-member Chamber of Representatives is also directly elected 65 members for two years (on a provincial basis), 12 members for four years (on a national basis). The President appoints a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The Andes rising to 6267 m (20561 ft) at Chimborazo divide the Pacific coastal plain in the west from the Amazonian rain forest in the east. Ecuador includes the Galapagos Islands, comprising 16 main islands and associated islets, about 1000 km (600 mi) offshore. Climate: The Amazonian Basin has a wet tropical climate. The tropical coastal plain is humid in the north, arid in the south. The highland valleys are mild, but the highest peaks have permanent snow.
ECONOMY
Agriculture is the biggest single employer, and major exports include cocoa, coffee and, in particular, bananas. Petroleum is the major foreign-currency earner. Problems include high inflation and foreign debt. Currency: Sucre.
HISTORY
By the mid-15th century the Ecuadorian highlands had been incorporated into the Inca Empire (see p. 391). After being conquered by Spain (153233), the area was ruled as part of Peru. In 1822 Ecuador was liberated by the armies of Antonio Jos
de Sucre (17951830) and Sim
n Bolivar (17831830). Initially federated with Colombia and Venezuela, Ecuador became completely independent in 1830. Throughout the 19th century there were struggles between liberals and conservatives. Since 1895 there have been long periods of military rule, but democratically elected governments have been in power since 1978. Relations with neighboring Peru have long been tense war broke out in 1941, when Ecuador lost most of its Amazonian region, and there were border skirmishes in 1981.
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EGYPT
EGYPT
Official name: Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiya (Arab Republic of Egypt)
Other major cities: Alexandria (El-Iskandariyah) 3295000, Port Said (Bur Said) 449000, El-Mahallah El-Kubra 385000, Suez (El Suweis) 376000 (1991 est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religions: Sunni Islam (90%), Coptic Christian (7%)
GOVERNMENT
Every five years, 454 members are elected by universal adult suffrage to the Majlis (Peoples Assembly); up to 10 additional members are appointed by the President, who is nominated by the Assembly and confirmed by referendum for a six-year term. The President appoints a Prime Minister and other Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Desert covers more than 90% of Egypt. The Western Desert, which stretches into Libya and Sudan, is low-lying. The Eastern Desert is divided by wadis and ends in the southeast in mountains beside the Red Sea. Most Egyptians live in the Nile River valley and delta, intensively cultivated lands that rely on irrigation by the annual flood of the Nile. East of the Suez Canal is the Sinai Peninsula, which culminates in Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrina) at 2642 m (8668 ft). Climate: Egyptian winters are mild and summers are hot and arid. Alexandria has the highest rainfall total 200 mm (8 in) while the area beside the Red Sea receives virtually no rain.
ECONOMY
Over one third of the labor force is involved in agriculture, producing maize, wheat, rice and vegetables for the domestic market and cotton and dates mainly for export. Petroleum reserves (small by Middle Eastern standards), canal tolls and tourism are important foreign-currency earners. However, tourism has suffered a major decline since 1993 owing to the activities of militant Islamic fundamentalists. The economy is held back by rapid population growth and by the demands of a large public sector and food subsidies. Currency: Egyptian pound.
HISTORY
From 3100 to 322 bc, Egypt was ruled by 30 dynasties of pharaohs (see pp. 366-67). The country then formed part of the Ptolemaic kingdom (see pp. 37273), the Roman Empire (see p. 377) and the Byzantine Empire (see p. 395). The Arabs invaded (63942), and gradually transformed Egypt into an Arabic Islamic society, a province of the Abbasid caliphate. A rival caliphate was set up by the Fatamid dynasty in Cairo (9731171). Mamluk armies, originally Turkish slaves, founded an independent sultanate (1250). In 1517 Egypt became part of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. After a French invasion (17981801), the Ottoman viceroy Mehemet Ali (17691849) made Egypt strong and established a dynasty that lasted until 1953. His successors gained territory and encouraged the construction of the Suez Canal, but they bankrupted Egypt. The UK, a major creditor, occupied Egypt (1882) and established a protectorate (191422).
The corrupt regime of King Farouk was toppled in a military coup (1952) and a republic was established (1953). The radical Gamal Abdel Nasser (191870) became president in 1954. He nationalized the Suez Canal (see pp. 449 and 454) and made Egypt the leader of Arab nationalism. Nasser was twice defeated by Israel in Middle East wars (see pp. 454 and 455), but his successor, President Anwar Sadat, made peace with Israel and was ostracized by the Arab world. Since Sadats assassination (1981), Egypt has regained its place in the Arab fold. The prominent role played by Egypt in the coalition against Saddam Husseins Iraq (1991) confirmed Egypt as one of the leaders of the Arab world. In the 1990s rising violence has accompanied the growth of militant Islamic fundamentalism.
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EL_SALVA
EL SALVADOR
Official name: La Rep
blica de El Salvador (The Republic of El Salvador)
Member of: UN, OAS, CACM
Area: 21393 km2 (8260 sq mi)
Population: 5517000 (1993 est)
Capital: San Salvador 1522000 (city 423000; 1992 est)
Other major city: Santa Ana 202000 (city 145000; 1992 est)
Language: Spanish (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (82%)
GOVERNMENT
The President who appoints a Cabinet of Ministers is elected by universal adult suffrage for a single five-year term. Every three years, direct elections are also held for the 84-member National Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
The country is mountainous, with ranges along the border with Honduras and a higher volcanic chain in the south, rising to 2381 m (7812 ft). Climate: The tropical coast is hot and humid, while the interior is temperate.
ECONOMY
Agricultural products, in particular coffee and sugar cane, account for nearly two thirds of the countrys exports. The economy declined from the 1970s to 1992 owing to the state of near civil war. Currency: Colon.
HISTORY
Spain conquered the area in 1524 and governed it as part of Guatemala. El Salvador was liberated in 1821, but remained in the Central American Federation until 1838. The country has suffered frequent coups and political violence. In 1932 a peasant uprising was harshly suppressed. El Salvadors overpopulation has been partially relieved by migration to neighboring states. After a soccer match between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969, war broke out because of illegal immigration by Salvadoreans into Honduras. Political and economic power is concentrated into the hands of a few families, and this has led to social tension. A state of virtual civil war existed from the late 1970s to 1992 with the US-backed military, assisted by extreme right-wing death squads, combating left-wing guerrillas. The government and guerrillas signed a peace agreement, which came into effect in 1992, when constitutional multi-party rule was restored.
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EQUATORI
EQUATORIAL
GUINEA
Official name: La Rep
blica de Guinea Ecuatorial (The Republic of Equatorial Guinea)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 28051 km2 (10831 sq mi)
Population: 377000 (1993 est)
Capital: Malabo 37000 (1988 est)
Languages: Spanish (official), Fang, Bubi
Religion: Roman Catholic majority
GOVERNMENT
Elections are held by universal adult suffrage for a President to serve for seven years and an 80-member National Assembly for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
The republic consists of the fertile island of Bioko (formerly Fernando P
o), the much smaller islands of Pagalu (formerly Annob
n) and the Corisco Group, and the district of Mbini (formerly R
o Muni) on the African mainland. Climate: The tropical climate is hot and humid with heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
Mbini exports coffee and timber; Bioko exports cocoa. The economy relies heavily on foreign aid. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Fernando P
o was acquired by Spain in 1778. R
o Muni was added in 1856 to create Spanish Guinea. The harsh plantation system practiced during the colonial era attracted much international criticism. Independence in 1968 began under the dictatorship of Francisco Nguema, who was overthrown by a military coup in 1979. Severe economic decline has been experienced since the 1970s. Although political pluralism was restored in 1993, allegations of abuses of human rights continue and the 1993 elections were condemned by Western observers.
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Other major city: Massawa (Mitsiwa) 40000 (1991 est)
Languages: Tigrinya (majority), Tigre, Arabic
Religions: Sunni Islam (50%), Coptic Christian (under 50%), Roman Catholic minority
GOVERNMENT
The Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF) took control of Eritrea in 1991 and formed a provisional government for a period not exceeding four years. A new constitution and a multi-party system are scheduled to be introduced in 1995.
GEOGRAPHY
Eritrea is physically an extension of the Ethiopian high plateau, although there are low coastal plains. The country includes the Dahlak Islands in the Red Sea. Climate: Eritrea has a dry tropical climate.
ECONOMY
A 30-year war of secession has shattered the economy and substantial foreign aid will be needed for reconstruction. Most Eritreans are involved in agriculture, growing sorghum or keeping livestock for hides (the main export), but aridity is a major problem. Before the war of independence, Eritrea was one of the most industrialized areas of Africa and some industries, including footwear and textiles, remain. Currency: Ethiopian currency is used provisionally.
HISTORY
The region was part of the (Ethiopian) kingdom of Aksum (4th6th centuries), but largely retained independence until it fell to the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. After 1870 the region was disputed by Egypt and Ethiopia, but in 1889 a third player, Italy, arrived on the scene. The Italian colony of Eritrea was created in 1890. Used as a base for Italys conquest of Ethiopia (193536), Eritrea came under British rule in 1941 when Italy was removed from East Africa. In 1952, the territory was federated as an autonomous state with Ethiopia, but its incorporation as an Ethiopian province in 1962 sparked a rebellion against Ethiopia that lasted until 1991. By 1977 the EPLF (see above) controlled most of the region. In 1991, after the EPLF was instrumental in toppling the Communist government in Ethiopia, Eritrea effectively seceded from Ethiopia. After a referendum produced an overwhelming majority in favor of independence, Eritrea gained internationally recognized statehood in 1993.
Official name: Eesti Vabariik (Republic of Estonia)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 45226 km2 (17462 sq mi)
Population: 1536000 (1993 est)
Capital: Tallinn 505000 (city 498000; 1991 est)
Other major cities: Tartu 114000, Narva 87000 (1991 est)
Languages: Estonian (63%), Russian (31%)
Religions: Lutheran (30%), Orthodox (10%)
GOVERNMENT
A 101-member Assembly (Riigokogu) is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. A President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Assembly is directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Estonia comprises a low-lying gently undulating mainland rising in the southeast to 318 m (1042 ft) and two main islands. Climate: The moist temperate climate is characterized by mild summers and cold winters.
ECONOMY
Major industries include engineering and food processing. Gas for heating and industry is extracted from bituminous shale. The important agricultural sector is dominated by dairying. After 1991, severe economic difficulties resulted from Estonias heavy dependency upon trade with Russia. However, the adoption of a separate, stable Estonian currency increased trade with Scandinavian countries and the start of privatization halted the decline. Currency: Kroon.
HISTORY
Estonia was ruled by Denmark (12271346), the (German) Teutonic Knights (13461558) and by Sweden (15581712) before becoming part of Russia. Estonian national consciousness increased throughout the 19th century. When the Communists took power in Russia (1917), Estonia seceded, but a German occupation and two Russian invasions delayed independence until 1919. Estonias fragile democracy was replaced by a dictatorship in 1934. The Non-Aggression Pact (1939) between Hitler and Stalin assigned Estonia to the USSR, which invaded and annexed the republic (1940). Estonia was occupied by Nazi Germany (194144). When Soviet rule was reimposed (1945), large-scale Russian settlement replaced over 120000 Estonians who had been killed or deported to Siberia. In 1988, reforms in the USSR allowed Estonian nationalists to operate openly. Nationalists won a majority in the republics parliament and seceded following the failed coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (1991). The USSR quickly recognized Estonias independence. The introduction of strict Estonian citizenship laws (1992) that denied full rights to most ethnic Russians increased tension with Russia. Although the citizenship law was eased in 1993, relations with Russia remain difficult. In 199495 Estonia negotiated an associate agreement with the EU/EC.
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ETHIOPIA
ETHIOPIA
Official name: Ityopia (Ethiopia). Previously known as Abyssinia.
Religions: Ethiopian Orthodox (52%), Sunni Islam (45%)
GOVERNMENT
In 1991, an 87-member Council of Representatives was appointed. Elections were held in 1994 for a Constitutional Assembly, which will draft a new constitution.
GEOGRAPHY
The Western Highlands including the Tigray Plateau and the Semien Mountains (rising to over 4000 m / 13000 ft) are separated from the lower Eastern Highlands by a wide rift valley. Climate: Ethiopia is very hot and dry in the north and east. The highlands have a temperate climate.
ECONOMY
Secessionist wars have damaged an impoverished, underdeveloped economy. Most Ethiopians are involved in subsistence farming, but drought and overgrazing have led to desertification. Coffee is the main foreign-currency earner. The end of finance from former Communist countries has increased Ethiopias difficulties. Aid from international relief agencies is important. Currency: Ethiopian Birr.
HISTORY
The kingdom of Aksum flourished in the first millennium ad, accepting Christianity in the 4th century. Later, Islam also entered the country. Under Menelik II, Ethiopia survived the European scramble for empire and defeated an Italian invasion (1896). However, the Italians occupied Ethiopia from 1936 to 1941. Emperor Haile Selassie (18921975) played a prominent part in African affairs, but failing to modernize Ethiopia or overcome its extreme poverty he was overthrown, and later murdered, in 1974. Allied to the USSR, a left-wing military regime instituted revolutionary change, but, even with Cuban help, it was unable to overcome secessionist guerrilla movements in Eritrea and Tigray. Drought, soil erosion and civil war brought severe famine in the 1980s and 1990s. The Marxist-Leninist regime was toppled by Tigrayan forces in 1991. The interim authorities recognized Eritrean independence in 1993.
Official name: Matanitu Ko Viti (Sovereign Democratic Republic of Fiji)
Member of: UN
Area: 18333 km2 (7078 sq mi)
Population: 762000 (1993 est)
Capital: Suva 141000 (city 70000; 1988 census)
Languages: English (official), Fijian (50%), Hindi (45%)
Religions: Methodist (45%), Hindu (38%)
GOVERNMENT
The 70-seat House of Representatives is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years to represent four ethnic voting lists 37 members are elected by Fijians, 27 by Indians, 1 by Rotumans and 5 by others. The traditional Fijian Council of Chiefs elects the President and 24 of the 34 members of the appointed Senate. The President appoints a Prime Minister.
GEOGRAPHY
The mountainous larger islands are volcanic in origin. The smaller islands are mainly coral reefs. Climate: Fiji experiences high temperatures and heavy rainfall with local variations.
ECONOMY
Fijis economy depends on agriculture, with sugar cane as the main cash crop. Copra, ginger, fish and timber are also exported. Tourism is increasing in importance. Currency: Fiji dollar.
HISTORY
Fiji was settled by Melanesians and Polynesians in around 1500 bc (see p. 389). Tasman reached Fiji in 1643, but Europeans did not settle until the early 1800s. During a period of great unrest, Chief Cakobau, who controlled the west, requested British assistance and ceded Fiji to Britain (1874). Indian labourers arrived to work on sugar plantations, reducing the Fijians, who retained ownership of most of the land, to a minority. Since independence (1970), racial tension and land disputes have brought instability. A military takeover in 1987 overthrew an Indian-led government and established a Fijian-dominated republic outside the Commonwealth. Recent emigration of Indians has resulted in the reemergence of a Fijian majority.
Religions: Lutheran (88%), Finnish Orthodox both official
GOVERNMENT
The 200-member Parliament (Eduskunta) is elected for four years under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage. Executive power is vested in a President elected for six years by direct popular vote. The President appoints a Council of State (Cabinet) headed by a Prime Minister responsible to the Parliament.
GEOGRAPHY
Nearly one third of Finland lies north of the Arctic Circle and one tenth of the country is covered by lakes, some 50000 in all. Saimaa the largest lake has an area of over 4400 km2 (1700 sq mi). During the winter months the Gulfs of Bothnia (to the west) and of Finland (to the south) freeze. The land is glaciated, and except for mountains in the northwest rising to 1342 m (4344 ft) most of the country is lowland. Climate: Finland has warm summers with long, extremely cold, winters, particularly in the north.
ECONOMY
Forests cover about two thirds of the country and wood products provide 30% of Finlands foreign earnings. Metalworking and engineering (in particular shipbuilding) are among the main Finnish industries, which have a reputation for quality and good design. Apart from forests, copper and rivers suitable for hydroelectric power, there are few natural resources. However, Finland enjoys a high standard of living, but the collapse of trade with Russia traditionally a major trading partner has created economic difficulties for Finland since 199192. The fishing industry is large and the agricultural sector produces enough dairy products for export. Currency: Markka.
HISTORY
The Swedish conquest of Finland began in the 12th century and was complete by 1634. At the Reformation most Finns became Lutheran. Russia conquered much of the area in the early 18th century and gained complete control in 1809. Throughout the 19th century Finland was a grand duchy ruled by the Russian emperor. Tension grew as Russia sought to strengthen its political and cultural leverage. In 1906, Finland was allowed to call its own Duma (Parliament), but repression followed again in 1910. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, civil war broke out in Finland. The pro-Russian party was defeated and an independent republican constitution (still in force today) was established (1919). Finlands territorial integrity lasted until the Soviet invasion in 1939, after which land was ceded to the USSR. The failure of a brief alliance with Germany led to further cession of territory to the Soviet Union in 1944. Finland has, since 1945, retained its neutrality and independence. Finland has achieved some influence through the careful exercise of its neutrality, for example hosting the first sessions of CSCE (now the OSCE; the Helsinki accords). Following the collapse of the USSR (1991), Finland renegotiated its close relationship with Russia and in 1995 became a member of the EU/EC.
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FRANCE
FRANCE
Official name: La R
publique fran
aise (The French Republic)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, NATO, OSCE, G7, OECD, WEU
Area: 543965 km2 (210026 sq mi) metropolitan France, excluding overseas d
partements and collectivit
s territoriales (whose status is between that of an overseas d
partement and an overseas territory)
Population: 57456 000 (1993 est) metropolitan France
Capital: Paris 9063000 (city 2175000; 1990 census)
Martinique 1100 km2 (425 sq mi), 360000 (1990 census), Fort-de-France.
union 2512 km2 (970 sq mi), 597000 (1990 census), Saint-Denis.
Collectivit
s territoriales integral parts of the French Republic (with areas, population and capitals):
Mayotte 376 km2 (145 sq mi), 94400 (1990 census), Mamoudzou.
Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 242 km2 (93 sq mi), 6400 (1990 census), Saint-Pierre.
Overseas territories (with areas, populations and capitals):
French Polynesia 4200 km2 (1622 sq mi), 199000 (1991 est), Papeete.
New Caledonia 19103 km2 (7376 sq mi), 168000 (1990 est), Noum
Southern and Antarctic Territories 439797 km2 (169806 sq mi), no permanent population.
Wallis and Futuna Islands 274 km2 (106 sq mi), 13700 (1990 est), Mata-Utu.
GOVERNMENT
Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected for a 7-year term by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers both responsible to Parliament but it is the President, rather than the PM, who presides over the Council of Ministers. The Senate (the upper house) comprises 321 members 296 of whom represent individual d
partements and 13 representing overseas d
partements and territories elected by members of municipal, local and regional councils. The remaining 12 senators are elected by French citizens resident abroad. Senators serve for nine years, with one third of the Senate retiring every three years. The National Assembly (the lower house) comprises 577 deputies elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage from single-member constituencies, with a second ballot for the leading candidates if no candidate obtains an absolute majority in the first round.
GEOGRAPHY
The Massif Central a plateau of old hard rocks, rising to almost 2000 m (6500 ft) occupies the middle of France. The Massif is surrounded by four major lowlands, which together make up over 60% of the total area of France. The Paris Basin the largest of these lowlands is divided by low ridges and fertile plains and plateau, but is united by the river system of the Seine and its tributaries. To the east of the Massif Central is the narrow Rh
ne-Sa
ne Valley, while to the west the Loire Valley stretches to the Atlantic. Southwest of the Massif Central lies the Aquitaine Basin, a large fertile region drained by the River Garonne and its tributaries. A discontinuous ring of uplands surrounds France. In the northwest the Armorican Massif (Brittany) rises to 411 m (1350 ft). In the southwest the Pyrenees form a high natural boundary with Spain. The Alps in the southeast divide France from Italy and contain Europes highest peak, Mont Blanc (4807 m / 15 771 ft). The lower Jura in the east lie on the Swiss border, while the Vosges Mountains separate the Paris Basin from the Rhine Valley. In the northeast the Ardennes extend into Belgium. The Mediterranean island of Corsica is an ancient massif rising to 2710 m (8891 ft). Principal rivers: Rhine (Rhin) 1320 km (820 mi), Loire 1020 km (634 mi), Rh
ne 812 km (505 mi). Climate: The Mediterranean south has warm summers and mild winters. The rest of France has a temperate climate, although the more continental east experiences warmer summers and colder winters. Rainfall is moderate, with highest falls in the mountains and lowest falls around Paris.
ECONOMY
Nearly two thirds of France is farmed. The principal products include cereals (wheat, maize, barley), meat and dairy products, sugar beet and grapes for wine. France is remarkably self-sufficient in agriculture, with tropical fruit and animal feeds being the only major imports. However, the small size of land holdings remains a problem despite consolidation and the efforts of cooperatives. Reafforestation is helping to safeguard the future of the important timber industry. Natural resources include coal, iron ore, copper, bauxite and tungsten, as well as petroleum and natural gas, and plentiful sites for hydroelectric power plants. Major French industries include textiles, chemicals, steel, food processing, motor vehicles, aircraft, and mechanical and electrical engineering. Traditionally French firms have been small, but mergers have resulted in larger corporations able to compete internationally. France is the worlds fourth industrial power after the USA, Japan and Germany. During the later 1980s many state-owned corporations were privatized. Over 50% of the labor force is involved in service industries, in particular administration, banking, finance, and tourism. Currency: French franc.
HISTORY
The Gauls gradually spread over France from the east about 1500 bc. The ancient Greeks established settlements on the Mediterranean coast from the 7th century bc, and the Romans conquered Gaul from 123 bc. After the Romans departed in the 5th century ad, Germanic tribes invaded, among whom the Franks became dominant. The Frankish Carolingians built an empire under Charlemagne (reigned 768814), and when his realm was divided in the 9th century, the western part became the ancestor of modern France (see p. 394).
The French nation state was slow to emerge, however. In medieval times, a series of dynasties sought to extend their power over the area that is now France: the Carolingians (768987), the Capetians (9871328), and the Valois (13281589). Territorial gains were repeatedly countered by invasion, while the strengthening of the monarchy did not occur without frequent dynastic crises. At the beginning of the Valois period (1328), Aquitaine, Brittany, Burgundy and Flanders were still outside the French royal domain, but by the 16th century they had all been included in the French state. For much of the medieval period, the French kings struggled to wrest control of northern and western France from the English, particularly in the Hundred Years War (see pp. 40001). By 1453, however, only Calais remained in English hands. The question of frontiers especially in the east continued up to the Revolution and beyond. Between the 16th and 18th centuries conflict with Britain and Frances other neighbors continued, particularly over colonial possessions and over control of the Low Countries and the Rhineland (see pp. 41517).
Religious conflicts worked against the consolidation of France. The 16th century was scarred by civil wars between Catholics and Protestant Huguenots (see pp. 40809). The Protestant Bourbon Henry of Navarre (15531610) succeeded the extinct Valois dynasty as Henry IV. Converting to Catholicism, he granted toleration to the Huguenots, but the 17th century saw the gradual and often brutal suppression of these liberties, and the status of Protestants remained a sensitive issue until the Revolution. Provincial independence also hindered national unity, despite the efforts of the Bourbon monarchs in particular Louis XIV (16381715) and his ministers (see pp. 41415) to weaken them.
By the 18th century France had achieved a high degree of centralization, and its glorification of the monarchy typified by the palace of Versailles was impressive. However, the Bourbon state was overextended. The national assembly, the Estates General, was unsummoned from 1614 to 1789, antagonizing the men of the Enlightenment (see p. 418). The Revolution of 1789 (see pp. 42425) sprang from a detestation of heavy and unfair taxes and from a hatred of the economic privileges of the nobility and the Church. However, the Revolutionary regimes that followed the downfall of the monarchy took centralization further, attempting far more than they could achieve for example, the suppression of the Church and the implementation of dramatic cultural reforms. The Revolutionary regimes also attempted to spread their ideas throughout Europe, especially under Napoleon (17691821; see pp. 42627), whose centralized empire briefly outshone the monarchy of Louis XIV.
After Napoleons defeat at Waterloo (1815), the less powerful monarchies of the first half of the 19th century the restored Bourbons (181530) and the Orl
anist monarchy (183048) were toppled by revolt fed by popular memories of the liberties enjoyed under the Republic (see p. 428). The coup of Louis-Napoleon (a nephew of Napoleon I) turned the Second Republic into the Second Empire, with himself as Napoleon III. However, his reign (185270) was brought to an end by defeat in the Franco-Prussian war (187071; see p. 429). After this defeat, the Third Republic (18711940) was established, and immediately faced the revolt of the Paris Commune (see p. 429). Controversy over the role of religion in the state particularly the question of religious-based or secular education did not end until Church and state were finally separated in 1905.
In the 1890s the French colonial empire reached its greatest extent, in particular in Africa, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (see pp. 43233). The Third Republic also saw continuing conflict over Frances own boundaries Alsace-Lorraine was lost in 1870 but recovered in 1918 at the end of World War I, during which trench warfare in northern France claimed countless lives (see pp. 43637). In World War II (see pp. 44445), Germany rapidly defeated the French in 1940 and completely occupied the country in 1942. Marshal Philippe P
tain (18561951) led a collaborationist regime in the city of Vichy, while General Charles de Gaulle (18901970) headed the Free French in exile in London from 1940. After the war, the Fourth Republic (194658) was marked by instability, the Suez Crisis of 1956 (see p. 454), and nationalist revolts in some of the colonies, notably Vietnam (see p. 452) and Algeria (see p. 451). The troubles in Algeria including the revolt of the French colonists and the campaign of their terrorist organization, the OAS led to the end of the Fourth Republic and to the accession to power of General de Gaulle in 1959.
As first president of the Fifth Republic, de Gaulle granted Algeria independence (1962). While the French colonial empire with a few minor exceptions was being disbanded, Frances position within Western Europe was being strengthened, especially by vigorous participation in the European Community. At the same time, de Gaulle pursued a foreign policy independent of the USA, building up Frances non-nuclear armaments and withdrawing French forces from NATOs integrated command structure. Although restoring political and economic stability to France, domestic dissatisfaction including the student revolt of 1968 (see p. 295) led de Gaulle to resign in 1969. De Gaulles policies were broadly pursued by his successors as president, Georges Pompidou (in office 196974) and Val
ry Giscard dEstaing (197481). The modernization of France continued apace under the countrys first Socialist president, Fran
The President who is elected by universal adult suffrage for seven years appoints a Council of Ministers (over which he presides) and a Prime Minister. The National Assembly has 120 members directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Apart from the narrow coastal plain, low plateau make up most of the country. The central Massif du Chaillu rises to 980 m (3215 ft). Climate: The equatorial climate is hot and humid with little seasonal variation.
ECONOMY
Petroleum, natural gas, manganese, uranium and iron ore and a relatively small population make Gabon one of the richest Black African countries, although most Gabonese are subsistence farmers. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
The slave trade developed after the Portuguese arrived in the late 15th century. The French colonized Gabon in the late 19th century. Pro-French L
on MBa (190267) led the country to independence in 1960. Deposed in a coup (1964), he was restored to power by French troops. Under his successor, Albert-Bernard Bongo, Gabon has continued its pro-Western policies. From 1968 to 1990 Gabon was a single-party state.
Religions: Sunni Islam (90%), various Protestant Churches (9%)
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for a President and 36 of the 50 members of the House of Representatives to be elected by universal adult suffrage every five years; the remaining members are appointed. The President appoints a Vice-President to lead the government in the House and a Cabinet of Ministers. The constitution was suspended following a military coup in 1994.
GEOGRAPHY
The Gambia is a narrow low-lying country on either bank of the River Gambia. Climate: The climate is tropical, with a dry season from November to May.
ECONOMY
The economy is largely based on the cultivation of groundnuts and tourism the latter was the major foreign-currency earner but has declined since the 1994 coup. Currency: Dalasi.
HISTORY
Once part of the Mali empire, the area became involved in the slave trade following the arrival of the Portuguese in the mid-15th century. British traders later supplanted the Portuguese, and a British colony was established in 1843. The Gambia achieved independence in 1965 under Sir Dawda K. Jawara. In 1981 an attempted coup against his rule encouraged efforts to merge with the neighboring French-speaking country of Senegal, but the confederation was dissolved in 1989. After independence the country remained a democracy until the military took power in 1994.
Official name: Sakartvelos Respublica (The Republic of Georgia)
Member of: UN, CIS, OSCE
Area: 69700 km2 (26900 sq mi)
Population: 5493000 (1993 est)
Capital: Tbilisi 1283000 (1991 est)
Other cities: Kutaisi 238000, Rustavi 162000 (1991 est)
Languages: Georgian (70%), Armenian (8%), Russian (6%), Azeri (3%), Ossetian (2%), Greek (2%)
Religion: Georgian Orthodox majority
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for the election for four years by universal adult suffrage of a 234-member legislature and a President who appoints a Council of Ministers. In 1993 the legislature dissolved itself, having granted emergency powers to the President.
GEOGRAPHY
The spine of the Caucasus Mountains forms the northern border of Georgia. The highest peak, Elbrus, reaches 5642 m (18510 ft). A lower range, the Little Caucasus, occupies south Georgia. Central Georgia comprises the Kolkhida lowlands. Climate: Coastal and central Georgia has a moist Mediterranean climate. The rest of Georgia is drier. Climate varies considerably with altitude and aspect.
ECONOMY
Despite a shortage of cultivable land, Georgia has a diversified agricultural sector including tea, citrus fruit, tobacco, cereals, vines, livestock and vegetables. Natural resources include coal, manganese and plentiful hydroelectric power. Machine building, food processing and chemicals are major industries. The economy was damaged by civil war in 1991 and 1992. Currency: Georgian coupon. (The Russian rouble is also used.)
HISTORY
Georgia is the home of an ancient civilization established in the 3rd millennium bc. Georgian states, including Colchis and Iberia, flourished in the 1st millennium bc. Colchis fell to the Greeks before being ruled by Pontus and then Rome (65 bc). Christianity was adopted c. ad 330. From the 4th to the 7th centuries Georgia was fought over by the Byzantine Empire, the Persians and, later, the Arabs. In the 8th century the Bagratid family established several Georgian kingdoms. Bagrat III (9751014) reunited Georgia. His descendant Queen Tamara (11841213) established an empire that included most of the Caucasian region, but national unity was destroyed by Mongol invasions and dynastic quarrels.
From the 16th to the 18th centuries Georgia was disputed by the Ottoman Turks and the Persians. An independent Georgia was reunited in 1762 and sought Russian protection against Turkey and Persia. Russia deposed the Bagratids (1801) and annexed Georgia by degrees (180178). Following the Russian Revolution (1918), a Georgian republic, allied to Germany, was proclaimed. A British occupation (191820) in favor of the White Russians failed to win local support, and Georgia was invaded by the Soviet Red Army (1921). Georgia became part of the Soviet Union in 1921 and a separate Union Republic of the USSR in 1936. Following the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (1991), Georgia declared independence. Locked into a fierce civil war, Georgia temporarily remained outside the CIS when the USSR was dissolved. A state council led by Eduard Shevardnadze, the former Soviet Foreign Minister replaced a military council in 1992. War erupted in northern Georgia when Abkhazian Muslims attempted secession in 1992. A Russian-brokered ceasefire came into force in 1994.
Religions: Lutheran and Churches of Lutheran tradition (43%), Roman Catholic (36%), Sunni Islam (2%)
GOVERNMENT
Each of the 16 states (L
nder; singular L
nd) is represented in the 79-member upper house of Parliament the Federal Council (Bundesrat) by three, four or six members of the state government (depending on population) appointed for a limited period. The lower house the Federal Assembly (Bundestag) has 662 members elected for four years by universal adult suffrage under a mixed system of single-member constituencies and proportional representation. Executive power rests with the Federal Government, led by a Federal Chancellor who is elected by the Bundestag. The President is elected for a five-year term by the Bundesrat and an equal number of representatives of the states. Each state has its own parliament and government.
GEOGRAPHY
The North German Plain, a region of fertile farmlands and sandy heaths, is drained by the Rivers Elbe, Weser and Oder. In the west, the plain merges with the North Rhine lowlands which contain the Ruhr coalfield and over 20% of the countrys population. A belt of plateau, formed of old hard rocks, crosses the country from east to west and includes the Hunsr
ck and Eifel highlands in the Rhineland and the Taunus and Westerwald uplands in Hesse, and extends into the Harz and Erz Mountains in Thuringia. The Rhine cuts through these central plateau in a deep gorge. In southern Germany, the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) separates the Rhine valley from the fertile valleys and scarplands of Swabia. The forested edge of the Bohemian uplands marks the Czech border, while the Bavarian Alps rising to the Zugspitze (2963 m / 9721 ft) form the frontier with Austria. Principal rivers: Rhine (Rhein) 1320 km (820 mi), Elbe 1165 km (724 mi), Danube (Donau) 2850 km (1770 mi). Climate: The climate is temperate, but with considerable variations between the generally mild north coastal plain and the Bavarian Alps in the south, which have cool summers and cold winters. The eastern part of the country has warm summers and cold winters.
ECONOMY
Germany is the worlds third economic power after the USA and Japan. The countrys recovery after World War II has been called the German economic miracle. The principal industries include mechanical and electrical engineering, chemicals, textiles, food processing and vehicles, with heavy industry and engineering concentrated in the Ruhr, chemicals in cities on the Rhine and motor vehicles in large provincial centers such as Stuttgart. From the 1980s, there has been a spectacular growth in high-technology industries. Apart from coal and brown coal, Germany has relatively few natural resources, and the country relies heavily upon imports. Labor has also been in short supply, and large numbers of guest workers (Gastarbeiter) particularly from Turkey and the former Yugoslavia have been recruited. Since reunification in 1990 the labor shortage in the western part of the country has also been met by migration from the former GDR. Service industries employ almost twice as many people as manufacturing industry. Banking and finance are major foreign-currency earners and Frankfurt is one of the worlds leading financial and business centers. Reunification has presented major problems and its costs led to an economic downturn. The GDRs economy had previously been the most successful in the Communist bloc, but, since reunification, many East German firms have been unable to compete with their Western counterparts. A trust (the Treuhandanstalt) was set up to oversee the privatization of the 8000 state-run firms in the east, but many have gone bankrupt and unemployment in the former GDR is high. The main German agricultural products include hops (for beer), grapes (for wine), sugar beet, wheat, barley, and dairy products. The collectivized farms of the former GDR were privatized in 1991. Forests cover almost 30% of Germany and support a flourishing timber industry. Currency: Deutsche Mark.
HISTORY
Germany has only been unified between 1871 and 1945, and since 1990. However, although for most of their history the German people were divided between a considerable number of states, they played a key role in Europe. Germanic peoples who displaced Celts in what was to become Germany helped to destroy the western Roman Empire. Most of the German lands were united under the Frankish Empire, but after the death of Charlemagne (768814) the inheritance was divided (see p. 394). The Saxon kings in particular Otto I unsuccessfully attempted to reunite the Germans, although most of Germany was nominally within the Holy Roman Empire (see p. 394).
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Hohenstaufen Holy Roman Emperors tried to make their mark in Italy as well as north of the Alps. This diversion allowed dozens of German princes, dukes, bishops and counts to assert their independence. Their small states formed an astonishing jigsaw on the map of Europe until the 19th century. In 1648 there were no fewer than 343 German states. The Habsburgs Emperors for almost the entire period from 1437 to 1806 were often so concerned with the fortunes of their territories in Austria, Hungary and Bohemia that they were unable to control the subordinate electorates, principalities and bishoprics. The independence of local rulers was reinforced in the 16th century when a number of princes followed the lead of the Protestant reformer Martin Luther (14831547; see pp. 40809). The Peace of Augsburg (1555) established the principle that a states religion followed that of its prince. This was soon challenged by both Lutherans and Catholics, and became one of many factors contributing to the Thirty Years War (161848; see p. 409).
During the 18th century, some small German states notably Saxe-Weimar under Duke Charles Augustus became centers of enlightened government and of culture (see pp. 41819). Other small territories became involved in the power politics of the major states. For example, after the accession of the elector of Hanover to the British throne in 1714 as George I, the British sovereign continued to be ruler of Hanover until 1837. The contribution of the small states was, however, overshadowed by the rise of Brandenburg-Prussia, under the uncompromising leadership of the Hohenzollern family of electors (after 1701 kings). Frederick William, the Great Elector (ruled 164088), laid the foundations of Prussias power. King Frederick William I (ruled 171340) expanded the army and did much to give Prussia its military nature, while Frederick II, the Great (ruled 174086), greatly enlarged his kingdom at the expense of Austria and Poland (see p. 417). By the 18th century, Prussia was vying for supremacy in Germany with the Austrian-based Empire.
During the Napoleonic Wars (see pp. 42627), France redrew the map of Germany, merging and annexing many territories, establishing new client states, and founding the Confederation of the Rhine. The Napoleonic period saw the upsurge of romantically inspired German nationalist sentiment. After the Napoleonic Wars, a German Confederation, initially composed of 39 states, was established. Although the Confederation contained important ancient states such as Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, W
rttemberg, Hesse, Oldenburg, Baden and Mecklenburg, none could match Prussia or Austria in size or influence. The Confederation did not satisfy the longings of the German people for unity. In 1830, and again in 1848, liberal nationalist movements swept Germany, extracting short-lived liberal constitutions from autocratic princes (see p. 428).
Otto von Bismarck (181598) prime minister of Prussia (186271), then German Chancellor (187190) masterminded Prussias ascendancy over Austria and the other German states (pp. 42829). Military victories over the Danes (1864), Austria and her German allies (1866) and France (1871) earned Prussia extra territories and complete domination within Germany. In 1871, a German Empire of four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies and seven principalities was proclaimed with the King of Prussia as Emperor of Germany (Kaiser). From 1871 to 1918, an expansionist unified Germany attempted to extend its influence throughout Europe, engaged in naval and commercial rivalry with Britain, and built a colonial empire. Under the mercurial Emperor William II (reigned 18881918), Germany was a destabilizing force in world politics.
Defeat in World War I (191418; see pp. 43637) led to the loss of much territory in Europe and the colonies overseas, the end of the German monarchies, the imposition of substantial reparations and the occupation of the Rhineland by Allied forces until 1930 (see pp. 44041). The liberal Weimar republic (191933) could not bring economic or political stability. In the early 1930s the Nazi Party gained popularity (see pp. 44243), urging the establishment of a strong centralized government, an aggressive foreign policy, Germanic character and the overturn of the postwar settlement. In 1933, Adolf Hitler (18891945) became Chancellor and in 1934 President. His Third Reich (empire) annexed Austria (1938), dismembered Czechoslovakia (1939) and embarked on the extermination of the Jews and others that the Nazis regarded as inferior. Invading Poland (1939), he launched Germany into war, defeat, occupation and division (see pp. 44445).
In 1945, Germany lost substantial territories to Poland and was divided into four zones of occupation by the Allies Britain, France, the USA and the USSR. Their intention was a united, disarmed Germany, but cooperation between the Allies rapidly broke down, and in 194849 the USSR blockaded West Berlin (see p. 450). The western zones of Germany were merged economically in 1948. After the merger of the western zones to form the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in the Soviet zone (October 1949). The GDRs economic progress suffered by comparison with that of the Federal Republic. Food shortages and repressive Communist rule led to an abortive uprising in the GDR in 1953. West Germany gained sovereignty as a member of the Western Alliance in 1955. The division of Germany was only grudgingly accepted in West Germany. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (18761967) refused to recognize East Germany as a separate state and relations with the Soviet Union remained uncertain. Major problems with the Eastern bloc included the undefined status of the areas taken over by Poland in 1945 and the difficult position of West Berlin a part of the Federal Republic isolated within Communist East Germany.
Relations between East and West Germany were soured as large numbers of East Germans fled to the West, and this outflow was stemmed only when Walter Ulbricht (East German Communist Party leader 195071) ordered the building of the Berlin Wall. Adenauer strove to gain the acceptance of West Germany back into Western Europe through reconciliation with France and participation in the European Community. The economic revival of Germany begun by Adenauer continued under his Christian Democrat (conservative) successors as Chancellor Ludwig Erhard (196366) and Georg Kiesinger (196669). Under Social Democrat Chancellors Willy Brandt (196974) and Helmut Schmidt (197482) treaties were signed with the USSR (1970) and Poland (recognizing the Oder-Neisse line as Polands western frontier), and relations with the GDR were normalized (1972). Under Helmut Kohl (Christian Democrat Chancellor from 1982) West Germany continued its impressive economic growth and enthusiastic membership of the EC, and acted as an economic and cultural magnet for much of Eastern Europe.
The root causes of the GDRs problems resurfaced in the late 1980s. The ageing Communist leadership led by Erich Honecker proved unresponsive to the mood of greater freedom emanating from Gorbachovs USSR. In 1989 fresh floods of East Germans left the GDR for the West by way of Czechoslovakia and Hungary. Massive public demonstrations in favor of reform resulted in a change of leadership and the opening of the Berlin Wall (November 1989), allowing free movement between East and West. Demonstrations in favor of more radical change continued, and a coalition government was appointed in the GDR. When the GDRs economy collapsed, West Germany proposed monetary union and the call for German reunification became unstoppable. Despite the initial opposition of the USSR, the reunification of Germany as a full member of the EC and NATO took place in October 1990. Soviet troops withdrew from the former GDR in 1994.
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GHANA
GHANA
Official name: The Republic of Ghana
Member of: UN, OAU, Commonwealth, ECOWAS
Area: 238533 km2 (92099 sq mi)
Population: 15635000 (1993 est)
Capital: Accra 1580000 (includes Tema 190000) (1988 est)
Other major cities: Kumasi 490000, Sekondi-Takoradi 175000, Tamale 170000 (1988 est)
Languages: English (official), Asante, Ewe, Ga
Religions: Various Protestant Churches (30%), Roman Catholic (over 25%), Sunni Islam (20%), animist (17%)
GOVERNMENT
The 200-member House of Parliament and a President are elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a 25-member Council of State.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of the country is low-lying plains and plateau. The central Volta Basin which ends in steep escarpments contains the large Lake Volta reservoir. Principal river: Volta 1600 km (1000 mi). Climate: The climate is tropical with 2000 mm (80 in) of rainfall on the coast, decreasing markedly inland. The north is subject to the hot, dry Harmattan wind from the Sahara.
ECONOMY
Political instability and mismanagement damaged the economy in the 1970s and 1980s. Nearly one half of the labor force is involved in farming. Cocoa is the main cash crop. Timber and mining for bauxite, gold and diamonds are important. Currency: Cedi.
HISTORY
Trade for gold, ivory and slaves led to the establishment of European coastal stations from around 1600. Britain ousted the Danes (1850) and the Dutch (1872) to establish the Gold Coast colony in 1874. The great inland kingdom of Ashanti was not finally conquered until 1898. After World War II, the prosperity of the cocoa industry, increasing literacy and the dynamism of Dr Kwame Nkrumah (190972) helped the Gold Coast set the pace for decolonization in Black Africa. After independence in 1957 as Ghana Nkrumahs grandiose policies and increasingly dictatorial rule led to his overthrow in a military coup in 1966. Ghana has since struggled to overcome its economic and political problems. There were six coups in 20 years, including two by Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings (1979 and 1982). A multi-party system was restored in 1992.
Language: Greek (official; over 96% as a first language)
Religion: Orthodox (98%; official)
GOVERNMENT
The 300-member Parliament is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation. The President who is elected for a five-year term by Parliament appoints a Prime Minister (who commands a majority in Parliament) and other Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Over 80% of Greece is mountainous. The mainland is dominated by the Pindus Mountains, which extend from Albania south into the Peloponnese Peninsula and at Mount Olympus reach 2911 m (9550 ft). The Rhodope Mountains lie along the Bulgarian border. Greece has some 2000 islands, of which only 154 are inhabited. Climate: Greece has a Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers and mild wet winters. The north and the mountains are colder.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves 25% of the labor force. Much of the land is marginal in particular the extensive sheep pastures. Greece is largely self-sufficient in wheat, barley, maize, sugar beet, fruit, vegetables, and cheese, and produces enough wine, olives (and olive oil) and tobacco for export. The industrial sector is expanding rapidly and includes processing local petroleum and natural gas, lignite, and bauxite. Tourism, a large merchant fleet, and money sent back by Greeks working abroad are major foreign-currency earners. Greece receives special economic aid from the EC. Currency: Drachma.
HISTORY
The Bronze Age Minoan civilization (c. 22001450 bc) was based in Crete (see pp. 36869), while the slightly later Mycenaean civilization (c. 15001150 bc) flourished on the Greek mainland (see p. 369). Following a dark age, city-states began to emerge in the 8th century bc at the beginning of the Archaic period (see p. 370). The influence of the culture and political thinking of the Classical Greek period (c. 500338 bc; see pp. 37001) has since been felt throughout the world. The city-states declined and were conquered by the Macedonians who, under Alexander the Great, spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Middle East (see pp. 37273). From 146 bc Greece formed part of the Roman Empire (see pp. 37677). On the division of the Roman Empire, Greece formed part of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire based in Constantinople (see pp. 39495).
Most of Greece remained under Byzantine rule until 1204, when the Crusaders took Constantinople. From 1204 to the 15th century Greece was divided into four states the Greek kingdoms of Salonika and Epirus in the north, and the Frankish monarchies of Athens and Archaia in the south. Venice gained the majority of the Greek islands. From the early 15th century, the Ottoman Turks gradually asserted control over the region. However, the continuing vitality of the Orthodox Church helped maintain a strong Greek national identity. As early as 1480 there was some resistance to Ottoman rule by klephts (rural bandits).
In the 18th century, various European powers, especially Russia, sought to use the Greeks in their quarrels with the Turks. The outbreak of revolution against Ottoman rule in 1821 attracted support throughout Europe (see p. 429). The leaders of the Greek state established in 1830 brought Western European constitutional institutions to Greece, but the monarchy established under a Bavarian prince in 1832 was swept away by revolution in 1862. Under a Danish prince who became King George I in 1863 Greece gained extra territory in 1863, 1881 and 1913, as Turkish power declined.
The 20th century has been marked by great instability. Eleuth
rios Veniz
los (18641936) dominated Greek politics from 1910 to 1935, a period of rivalry between republicans and royalists. An attempt by his rival King Constantine I to seize Anatolia from Turkey (192122) ended in military defeat and the establishment of a republic in 1924. The monarchy was restored in 1935, but it depended upon a military leader, General Ioannis Metaxas (18711941), who, claiming the threat from Communism as justification, ruled as virtual dictator. The nation was deeply divided. The German invasion of 1941 (see p. 444) was met by rival resistance groups of Communists and monarchists, and the subsequent civil war between these factions lasted from 1945 to 1949, when, with British and US aid, the monarchists emerged victorious. Continued instability in the 1960s led to a military coup in 1967. King Constantine II, who had not initially opposed the coup, unsuccessfully appealed for the overthrow of the junta and went into exile. The dictatorship of the colonels ended in 1974 when their encouragement of a Greek Cypriot coup brought Greece to the verge of war with Turkey. Civilian government was restored, and a new republican constitution was adopted in 1975. Greece has forged closer links with Western Europe, in particular through membership of the EC (1981). Greek opposition delayed international recognition of the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (1992-93) and in 1994 Greece defied the EC by imposing an economic blockade on Macedonia.
Capital: St Georges 36000 (city 4400; 1991 census)
Language: English (official); French-African patois
Religions: Roman Catholic (82%), Anglican
GOVERNMENT
The 13-member Senate is appointed. The 15-member House of Representatives is elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The Governor General the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Grenada appoints a Prime Minister (who commands a majority in the House) and a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
A forested mountain ridge rising to 840 m (2706 ft) covers much of this well-watered island. The island of Carriacou forms part of Grenada. Climate: Grenada has a tropical maritime climate with a dry season from January to May.
ECONOMY
The production of spices, in particular nutmeg, is the mainstay of a largely agricultural economy. Tourism is increasing in importance. Currency: East Caribbean dollar.
HISTORY
Grenada was discovered by Columbus in 1498, colonized by France in 1650 and ceded to Britain in 1783. Independence was gained in 1974. The left-wing New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979. In 1983 the Premier Maurice Bishop was killed in a further coup in which more extreme members of the government seized power. Acting upon a request from East Caribbean islands to intervene, US and Caribbean forces landed in Grenada. After several days fighting, the coup leaders were detained. Constitutional rule was restored in 1984.
Capital: Guatemala City 2074000 (including suburbs; 1992 est)
Other major cities: Puerto Barrios 338000, Quezaltenango 246000 (1992 est)
Language: Spanish (official; about 55% as a first language), over 20 Mayan languages (45%)
Religions: Roman Catholic (official; 65%), various Protestant Evangelical Churches (35%)
GOVERNMENT
A President who appoints a Cabinet and the 116-member National Congress are elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. The National Congress comprises 87 members elected by constituencies and 29 members elected under a system of proportional representation.
GEOGRAPHY
A mountain chain containing over 30 volcanoes, including Tajumulco (4220 m/13881 ft) separates Pacific and Atlantic coastal lowlands. Climate: The coastal plains have a tropical climate; the mountains are more temperate.
ECONOMY
More than one half of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Coffee is the major export, while the other main crops include sugar cane and bananas. Currency: Quetzal.
HISTORY
The area was the center of the Mayan civilization between the 4th and 9th centuries (see pp. 39091). After 1524, Guatemala was the administrative center of Spanish Central America. Independence was proclaimed in 1821, but the country was part of the Central American Federation until 1839. Until recent times, Guatemala has a history of being ruled by dictators allied to landowners. However, in the 1950s President Jacobo Arbenz expropriated large estates, dividing them among the peasantry. Accused of being a Communist, he was deposed by the army with US military aid (1954). For over 30 years, the left was suppressed, leading to the emergence of guerrilla armies. Thousands of dissidents were killed or disappeared. Civilian government was restored in 1986. In 1993, President Serrano was deposed after attempting to impose a dictatorship, and a government of national unity was formed.
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GUINEA
GUINEA
Official name: La R
publique de Guin
e (The Republic of Guinea)
Member of: UN, OAU, ECOWAS
Area: 245857 km2 (94926 sq mi)
Population: 7420000 (1993 est)
Capital: Conakry 705000 (1983 est)
Other major city: Kankan 89000 (1983 est)
Languages: French (official), Fulani (40%), Soussou (11%)
Religion: Sunni Islam (85%)
GOVERNMENT
Power is exercised by the 15-member Military Committee for National Recovery, whose President is head of state and of government. Political parties are allowed but no date has been set for multi-party elections to a new unicameral parliament.
GEOGRAPHY
Tropical rain forests cover the coastal plain. The interior highlands and plains are covered by grass and scrubland. The southwest mountains rise to Mount Nimba 1752 m (5748 ft). Climate: The climate is tropical with heavy rainfall. Temperatures are cooler in the highlands.
ECONOMY
Bauxite accounts for 80% of Guineas exports. However, over 75% of the labor force is involved in agriculture, producing bananas, oil palm and citrus fruits for export, and maize, rice and cassava as subsistence crops. Despite mineral wealth, Guinea is one of the worlds poorest states and relies heavily on aid. Currency: Guinean franc.
HISTORY
Portuguese slave traders visited the coast from the 15th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries the area was part of the Fulani tribes Islamic kingdom. Increasing French influence in the 19th century led to the establishment of the colony of French Guinea (1890). Unlike the rest of French Africa, Guinea voted for a complete separation from France in 1958, suffering severe French reprisals as a result. The authoritarian radical leader S
kou Tour
(192284) isolated Guinea, but he became reconciled with France in 1978. The leaders of a military coup (1984) have achieved some economic reforms, but a return to constitutional rule has been postponed.
The 150-member Assembly which is elected by universal adult suffrage elects a President, who appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of the country is low-lying, with swampy coastal lowlands and a flat forested interior plain. The northeast is mountainous. Climate: The climate is tropical with a dry season from December to May.
ECONOMY
The country has one of the lowest standards of living in the world. Its subsistence economy is based mainly on rice. Palm kernels and timber are exported. Currency: Peso.
HISTORY
The area was much involved in the slave trade after the arrival of the Portuguese (1441). The colony of Portuguese Guinea was created in 1879. Failing to secure reform by peaceful means, the PAIGC movement mounted a liberation war (196174). Independence was proclaimed in 1973 and recognized by Portugal in 1974. Multi-party politics were introduced in 1991.
Religions: Hinduism (34%), various Protestant Churches (34%), Roman Catholic (18%), Sunni Islam
GOVERNMENT
The 65-member National Assembly is elected for five years under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage. The President the leader of the majority in the Assembly appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
A coastal plain is protected from the sea by dykes. Tropical rain forest covers much of the interior. The Pakaraima range rises to 2772 m (9094 ft). Climate: The interior is tropical, while the coastal plain is more moderate.
ECONOMY
Guyana depends on mining bauxite and growing sugar cane and rice. Nationalization and emigration have caused economic problems. Currency: Guyana dollar.
HISTORY
Dutch colonies on the Guyanese coast established since the 1620s were captured by the British in 1796 and merged to form British Guiana in 1831. From the 1840s large numbers of Indian and Chinese laborers were imported from Asia to work on sugar plantations. Racial tension between their descendants now the majority and the Black community (descended from imported African slaves) led to violence in 1964 and 1978. Guyana has been independent since 1966.
Other major city: Jacmel 217000 (including suburbs; 1988 est)
Languages: Creole (90%), French both official
Religions: Roman Catholic (official; nominally 80%); (practiced by the majority) voodoo
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for a President, 27-member Senate and 77-member Chamber of Deputies elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Haiti is the western part of the island of Hispaniola. Mountain ranges up to 2800 m (8800 ft) run from east to west, separated by densely populated valleys and plains. Climate: Haitis tropical climate is moderated by altitude and by the sea.
ECONOMY
Over 65% of the labor force are involved in agriculture, mainly growing crops for local consumption. Coffee is the main cash crop. With few resources, overpopulated Haiti is the poorest country in the western hemisphere. Currency: Gourde.
HISTORY
Columbus discovered Hispaniola in 1492, and in the 17th century the French settled Haiti, which formally became a colony in 1697. Black slaves who were imported to work plantations revolted in 1791 and were freed in 1794. Toussaint lOuverture a former slave became governor general (1801), but was unable to defeat a French force sent to restore the old order. Independence was proclaimed in 1804 during a revolt led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christophe, both of whom reigned as monarchs of Haiti. A united republic was achieved in 1820. Coups, instability and tension between Blacks and mulattos wracked Haiti until the US intervened (191535).
President Fran
ois Duvalier (Papa Doc; in office 195671) and his son Jean-Claude (197186) cowed the country into submission by means of their infamous private militia, the Tontons Macoutes. Several coups have followed the violent end to the Duvalier era. A free multi-party election the first in Haitis history took place in 1991, but constitutional government was suspended following a military coup nine months later when President Aristide was deposed. International sanctions and US intervention restored Aristide to power in 1994. Many thousands of Haitians attempt to enter the USA illegally every year.
Other major cities: San Pedro Sula 301000, La Ceiba 72000 (including suburbs; 1988 census)
Language: Spanish (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (85%); various Protestant Evangelical Churches
GOVERNMENT
The President and the 134-member National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
Over three quarters of Honduras is mountainous, with the highest point at Cerio las Minas 2849 m (9347 ft). There are small coastal plains. Climate: The tropical lowlands experience high rainfall (15002000 mm / 6080 in). The more temperate highlands are drier.
ECONOMY
Over 40% of Hondurans work in agriculture, but despite agrarian reform, living standards remain low. Bananas and coffee are the leading exports. There are few natural resources. Currency: Lempira.
HISTORY
In 1502 Columbus reached Honduras and in 1523 the first Spanish settlement was established. Honduras gained freedom from Spain in 1821, but was part of the Central American Federation until 1839. Between independence and the early 20th century, Honduras experienced constant political upheaval and wars with neighboring countries. US influence was immense, largely owing to the substantial investments of the powerful United Fruit Company in banana production. After a short civil war in 1925, a succession of military dictators governed Honduras until 1980. Since then the country has had democratically elected pro-US center-right civilian governments.
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HUNGARY
HUNGARY
Official name: Magyar Kozt
g (The Hungarian Republic) or Magyarorsz
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Member of: UN, OSCE, CEFTA
Area: 93033 km2 (35920 sq mi)
Population: 10296000 (1993 est)
Capital: Budapest 1992000 (1992 est)
Other major cities: Debrecen 215000, Miskolc 192000, Szeged 178000 (1992 est)
Language: Magyar (Hungarian; official; 97%)
Religions: Roman Catholic (56%), Calvinist and Lutheran Churches (22%)
GOVERNMENT
The 386-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage, with 58 members elected from a national list, 152 elected on a county basis and 176 elected from single-member constituencies. The President who is elected by the Assembly appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet from the majority in the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
Hungary west of the River Danube is an undulating lowland. The thickly wooded highlands of the northeast contain the highest point, K
kes (1015 m / 3330 ft). The center and east is a large expanse of flat plain, the Great Alfold. Principal rivers: Danube (Duna) 2850 km (1770 mi), Tisza 996 km (619 mi). Climate: The climate is continental with long, hot and dry summers, and cold winters.
ECONOMY
Nearly one seventh of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Major crops include cereals (maize, wheat and barley), sugar beet, fruit, and grapes for wine. Despite large reserves of coal, Hungary imports over 50% of its energy needs. The steel, chemical fertilizer, pharmaceutical, machinery and vehicle industries are important. Since the early 1980s, private enterprise and foreign investment have been encouraged, and most large state enterprises have been privatized. Currency: Forint.
HISTORY
The Magyars colonized the area from the east in the 9th century. The first Magyar king, Stephen (reigned 100138), encouraged Christianity and West European culture. Matthias Corvinus (reigned 145890) made Hungary a major power and did much to introduce the ideas of the Renaissance to central Europe. In the 16th century Hungary was dismembered by the Austrian Habsburgs and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. The Habsburgs liberated Buda, the capital, from the Turks in 1686, and by the 18th century all the Hungarian lands were within the Habsburg Empire. Lajos Kossuth (180294) led a nationalist revolt against Austrian rule (184849), but fled when Austria regained control with Russian aid. Austria granted Hungary considerable autonomy in the Dual Monarchy (1867) the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Defeat in World War I led to a brief period of Communist rule under B
la Kun (1919), then occupation by Romania. In the postwar settlement (see p. 441), Hungary lost two thirds of its territory. The Regent Admiral Mikl
s Horthy (18681957) cooperated with Hitler during World War II in an attempt to regain territory, but defeat in 1945 resulted in occupation by the Red Army, and a Communist Peoples Republic was established in 1949. The Hungarian Uprising in 1956 was a heroic attempt to overthrow Communist rule, but was quickly suppressed by Soviet forces, and its leader, Imre Nagy, was executed. J
nos Kadar Party Secretary 195688 tried to win support with economic progress. However, in the late 1980s reformers in the Communist Party gained the upper hand, and established a fully democratic, multi-party state. Soviet troops left Hungary in 1990. The country has taken rapid steps to establish a free-market economy. Hungary has become an associate, and has applied for full membership, of the EU/EC. The status of 3000000 ethnic Hungarians in neighboring states has become an issue.
The 63-member Althing (Parliament) is elected under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for a four-year term and meets as an Upper House of 20 members and a Lower House of 43 members. The President who is also directly elected for four years appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet who are responsible to the Althing.
GEOGRAPHY
The greater part of Iceland has a volcanic landscape with hot springs, geysers and some 200 volcanoes some of them active. Much of the country is tundra. The south and center are covered by glacial icefields, the largest of which contains Hvannadalshn
kur at 2119 m (6952 ft) the countrys highest peak. Climate: The cool temperate climate is warmed by the Gulf Stream, which keeps Iceland milder than most places at the same latitude.
ECONOMY
The fishing industry provides the majority of Icelands exports. Hydroelectric power is used to smelt aluminium; geothermal power warms extensive greenhouses. Ample grazing land makes Iceland self-sufficient in meat and dairy products. Currency: Krona.
HISTORY
Norwegians settled in Iceland in the 9th century. From 930 Iceland was an independent republic, but Norwegian sovereignty was accepted in 1264 to end a civil war. When Denmark and Norway were united (1381), Iceland became Danish. Nationalism grew in the 19th century, and in 1918 Iceland gained independence, linked to Denmark only by their shared monarchy. In World War II the Danish link was severed and a republic was declared (1944). Disputes over fishing rights in Icelandic territorial waters led to clashes with British naval vessels in the 1950s and 1970s.
Other major cities: Bombay 12596000 (city 9926000; Kalyan 1014000), Calcutta 11022000 (city 4388000), Madras 5422000 (city 3841000), Hyderabad 4254000 (city 3146000), Bangalore 4130000 (city 3303000), Ahmedabad 3298000 (city 2873000), Poona (Pune) 2485000 (city 1560000), Kanpur 2111000 (city 1958000), Nagpur 1661000 (city 1622000), Lucknow 1642000 (city 1592000), Surat 1517000 (1497000), Jaipur 1514000 (city 1455000); 10 other cities with over 1 million inhabitants (1991 census)
Languages: Hindi (30%; official), English (official), Bengali (8%), Telugu (8%), Marathi (8%), Tamil (7%), Urdu (5%), Gujarati (5%); over 1600 other languages
Religions: Hindu (83%), Sunni Islam (11%), Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) (nearly 3%)
GOVERNMENT
The upper house of the federal parliament the 250-member Council of States (Rajya Sabha) consists of 12 members nominated by the President and 238 members elected by state assemblies. One third of the Council retires every two years. The lower house the House of the People (Lok Sabha) consists of 542 members elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage, plus two nominated members. The President who serves for five years is elected by the federal parliament and the state assemblies. The President appoints a Prime Minister who has a majority in the House and a Council of Ministers, who are responsible to the House. Each of the 25 states has its own legislature.
GEOGRAPHY
The Himalaya cut the Indian subcontinent off from the rest of Asia. Several Himalayan peaks within India rise to over 7000 m (23000 ft), including Kangchenjunga on the Nepal-Sikkim border at 8598 m (28208 ft). South of the Himalaya, the basins of the Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra and their tributaries are intensively farmed and densely populated. The Thar Desert is along the border with Pakistan. In south India, the Deccan a large plateau of hard rocks is bordered in the east and west by the Ghats, discontinuous ranges of hills descending to coastal plains. Natural vegetation ranges from tropical rain forest on the west coast and monsoon forest in the northeast and far south, through dry tropical scrub and thorn forest in the Deccan to Alpine and temperate vegetation in the Himalaya. Principal rivers: Ganges (Ganga) 2510 km (1560 mi), Brahmaputra 2900 km (1800 mi), Sutlej 1450 km (900 mi). Climate: India has three distinct seasons: a hot season from March to June, a wet season (when the southwest monsoon brings heavy rain) from June to October, and a cooler drier season from November to March. Temperatures range from the cool of the Himalaya to the tropical heat in the south.
ECONOMY
Two thirds of the labor force are involved in subsistence farming, with rice and wheat as the principal crops. Cash crops tend to come from large plantations and include tea, cotton, jute and sugar cane all grown for export. The monsoon rains and irrigation make cultivation possible in many areas, but drought and floods are common. India is a major industrial power. Major coal reserves provide the power base for industry. Other mineral deposits include diamonds, bauxite, and titanium, copper and iron ore, as well as substantial reserves of natural gas and petroleum. The textile, vehicle, iron and steel, pharmaceutical and electrical industries make important contributions to the economy, but India has balance-of-payment difficulties and relies upon foreign aid for development. Over one third of the population is below the official poverty line. Privatization of some state enterprises began in the early 1990s. Currency: Rupee.
HISTORY
The history of the kingdoms and empires of India to the colonial age and the expansion of Hindu culture and Islam in India is covered on pp. 38485. By the middle of the 18th century the British East India Company had established itself as the dominant power in India (see pp. 417 and 432). After the Indian Mutiny (185758; see p. 432) was put down, the Company ceded its rights in India to the British Crown. In 1877 the Indian Empire was proclaimed with Queen Victoria as Empress. The Empire included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh, and comprised the Crown Territories of British India and over 620 Indian protected states. The latter covered about 40% of India, and enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy under their traditional princes.
From the middle of the 19th century the British cautiously encouraged Indian participation in the administration of British India. British institutions, the railways and the English language all imposed upon India by a modernizing imperial power fostered the growth of an Indian sense of identity beyond the divisions of caste (see p. 258) and language. However, ultimately the divisions of religion proved stronger. The Indian National Congress the forerunner of the Congress Party was first convened in 1885, and the Muslim League first met in 1906. Nationalist demands grew after British troops fired without warning on a nationalist protest meeting the Amritsar Massacre (1919). The India Acts (1919 and 1935) granted limited autonomy and created an Indian federation, but the pace of reform did not satisfy Indian expectations. In 1920, Congress led by Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi (18691948) began a campaign of non-violence and non-cooperation with the British authorities. However relations between Hindus and Muslims steadily deteriorated. By 1940 the Muslim League was demanding a separate sovereign state.
By 1945, war-weary Britain had accepted the inevitability of Indian independence. However, religious discord forced the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 into predominantly Hindu India under Jawaharlal (Pandit) Nehru (18891964) of the Congress Party and Muslim Pakistan (including what is now Bangladesh) under Mohammad Ali Jinnah (18761948) of the Muslim League. Over 70 million Hindus and Muslims became refugees and crossed the new boundaries, and thousands were killed in communal violence. The frontiers remained disputed. India and Pakistan fought border wars in 194749, 1965 (over Kashmir) and again in 1971 when Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan with Indian assistance. Kashmir is still divided along a cease-fire line. There were also border clashes with China in 1962.
Under Nehru PM 194764 India became one of the leaders of the nonaligned movement of Third World states. Under the premiership (196677 and 198084) of his daughter Indira Gandhi (191784) India continued to assert itself as the dominant regional power. Although India remained the worlds largest democracy despite Mrs Gandhis brief imposition of emergency rule local separatism and communal unrest have threatened unity. The Sikhs have conducted an often violent campaign for an independent homeland Khalistan in the Punjab. In 1984 Mrs Gandhi ordered the storming of the Golden Temple of Amritsar, a Sikh holy place that extremists had turned into an arsenal. In the same year Mrs Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguard. Her son Rajiv Gandhi (PM 198489) was assassinated in the 1991 election campaign. Tension and violence between Hindus and Muslims has increased since a campaign (1990 ) to build a Hindu temple on the site of a mosque in the holy city of Ayodhya.# The once dominant Congress Party has split and a range of smaller parties, some regional in character, has flourished. Coalition government is now the norm in India.
Official name: Republik Indonesia (Republic of Indonesia)
Member of: UN, ASEAN, OPEC, Apec
Area: 1919317 km2 (741052 sq mi) including East Timor which has an area of 14874 km2 (5743 sq mi) or 1904443 km2 (735309 sq mi) excluding East Timor
Population: 188216000 (1993 est) including East Timor which has a population of 748 000 (1990 census)
Capital: Jakarta 7836000 (including suburbs; 1985 est)
Other major cities: Surabaya 2421000, Bandung 2027000, Medan 1686000, Semarang 1005000 (all including suburbs; 1985 est)
Languages: Bahasa Indonesia (official), Javanese (34%), Sundanese (14%); Madurese (6%), about 26 other main languages
Religions: Sunni Islam (80%), Roman Catholic (3%), other Christians (7%), Hindu (2%)
GOVERNMENT
Every five years elections are held by universal adult suffrage for 400 members of the House of Representatives; 100 additional members are chosen by the President. The Peoples Consultative Assembly which comprises the House of Representatives plus 500 representatives of provincial governments, occupational and special interests meets every five years to oversee principles of state policy and to elect the President, who appoints a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Indonesia consists of nearly 3700 islands of which about 3000 are inhabited. The southern chain of mountainous, volcanic islands comprises Sumatra, Java with Madura, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Java and its smaller neighbor Madura are fertile and densely populated, containing nearly 65% of Indonesians. The northern chain comprises Kalimantan (the Indonesian sector of Borneo), the irregular mountainous island of Sulawesi (Celebes), the Moluccas group and Irian Jaya (western New Guinea), that contains the highest peak Ngga Pulu (or Carstenz Pyramid) at 5030 m (16503 ft). Over two thirds of the country is covered by tropical rain forests. Climate: The climate is tropical with heavy rainfall throughout the year.
ECONOMY
Indonesia has great mineral wealth petroleum, natural gas, tin, nickel and bauxite but is relatively poor because of its great population. Over 50% of Indonesians are subsistence farmers with rice being the major crop, but both estate and peasant farmers produce important quantities of rubber, tea, coffee and spices for export. Industry largely concerned with processing mineral and agricultural products is expanding and Indonesia achieved high economic growth rates in the 1980s and early 1990s. Currency: Rupiah.
HISTORY
Indian traders brought Hinduism to the East Indies (as Indonesia was formerly known) and by the 3rd century ad, Hindu kingdoms had been established in Java and Sumatra. Monks brought Buddhism from India, and both Hindu and Buddhist states flourished in the islands. The powerful Buddhist kingdom of Sri Vijaya on Sumatra (7th13th centuries) was eclipsed by the Javan Hindu kingdom of Majapahit (13th15th centuries). Arab traders brought Islam, which took the place of both established religions by the 16th century, while at the same time European incursions began. The struggle between the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish and British for the rich spice trade ended in Dutch ascendancy in the 1620s. The East Indies became the major and most profitable part of the Dutch Empire.
Except for a brief period of British occupation (181114) and occasional local risings, the Netherlands retained control until 1942, when the Japanese invaded and were welcomed by most Indonesians as liberators from colonial rule. Upon Japans surrender in 1945, Achmed Sukarno (190170) the founder of the nationalist party in 1927 declared the Dutch East Indies to be the independent republic of Indonesia. Under international pressure, the Dutch accepted Indonesian independence (1949) after four years of intermittent but brutal fighting. Sukarnos rule became increasingly authoritarian and the country sank into economic chaos. In 1962 he seized Netherlands New Guinea, which was formally annexed as Irian Jaya in 1969, although a separatist movement persists. Between 1963 and 1966 Sukarno tried to destabilize the newly created Federation of Malaysia by armed incursions into North Borneo. General T.N.I. Suhartos suppression of a Communist uprising in 196566 enabled him to reverse Sukarnos anti-Americanism and eventually to displace him with the support of both the students and the army. Around 80000 members of the Communist Party were killed in this period. The annexation of Portuguese East Timor by Indonesia in 1976 is unrecognized by the international community, and guerrilla action by local nationalists continues. International protests followed the killing of unarmed Timorese demonstrators by Indonesian troops in 1991. An ambitious program of resettlement has been attempted to relieve overcrowded Java, but the Javanese settlers have been resented in the outlying, underdeveloped islands.
n (Islamic Republic of Iran). Known as Persia until 1935.
Member of: UN, OPEC
Area: 1638057 km2 (632457 sq mi)
Population: 60770000 (1993 est)
Capital: Tehran 7100000 (including suburbs; 1991 est)
Other major cities: Mashhad 1464000, Isfahan 987000, Tabriz 971000, Shiraz 848000 (including suburbs; 1986 census)
Languages: Farsi or Persian (official; 45%), Azeri (26%); Kurdish, Luri and Baluchi minorities
Religion: Shia Islam (official; 98%)
GOVERNMENT
A Council of Experts 83 Shiite clerics is elected by universal adult suffrage to appoint the Wali Faqih (religious leader), who exercises supreme authority over the executive, legislature, judiciary and military. The 270-member Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis) and the President are directly elected for four years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet who are responsible to the Majlis.
GEOGRAPHY
Apart from restricted lowlands along the Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the Iraqi border, Iran is a high plateau, surrounded by mountains. The Elburz Mountains in the north include the countrys highest peak, Demavend at 5604 m (18386 ft); the Zagros Mountains form a barrier running parallel to the Gulf. In the east, lower areas of the plateau are covered by salt deserts. Climate: #Iran has an extreme climate ranging from very hot on the Gulf to sub-zero temperatures in winter in the northwest. The Caspian Sea coast has a subtropical climate with adequate rainfall. Most of Iran, however, is arid.
ECONOMY
Petroleum is Irans main source of foreign currency. The principal industries are petrochemicals, carpetweaving, textiles, vehicles and cement. The war with Iraq (see below) and the countrys international isolation have severely interrupted trade and Iran suffers a lack of investment. Over a quarter of the labor force is involved in agriculture, mainly producing cereals (wheat, maize and barley) and keeping livestock, but lack of water, land ownership problems and manpower shortages have restricted yields. Currency: Rial.
HISTORY
The Persian Achaemenid Empire grew under Cyrus from 539 bc (see p. 365). Under Darius I and Xerxes the Persians ruled from the Danube to the Indus, although their attempts to conquer Greece were eventually unsuccessful (see p. 370). Alexander the Great finally defeated the Achaemenids, taking the capital Persopolis in 330 bc (see pp. 37273). Persia was part of the Hellenic Seleucid Empire until 247 bc, then ruled by the Parthians until ad 226, when the Sassanians an Iranian people established an empire that lasted until the coming of the Arabs and Islam in the 7th century. The first Muslim dynasty, the Umayyads, was based on Damascus, but their successors the Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad, where Persian traditions predominated. Once Persia had recovered from the ruthless Mongol invasion of the 13th century, a golden age arose under the Safavid dynasty. The Safavids were great patrons of the arts, and established Shia rather than Sunni Islam as the state religion. The 18th century saw the rise of the Qajar dynasty, who moved the capital from Isfahan to Tehran. In the 19th century, Russia and Britain became rivals for influence in the region.
In 1921, an Iranian Cossack officer, Reza Khan Pahlavi (18771944), took power. Deposing the Qajars in 1925, he became Shah (emperor) himself as Reza I and modernized and secularized Iran. However, because of his pro-German sentiments, he was forced to abdicate by Britain and the USSR (1941) and was replaced by his son Mohammed Reza (191980). The radical nationalist PM Muhammad Mussadiq briefly toppled the monarchy (1953). Regaining his throne, the Shah tightened his grip through oppression and sought popularity through land reform and rapid development with US backing. However, Westernization offended the clergy, and an alliance of students, the bourgeoisie and religious leaders eventually combined against him, overthrowing the monarchy in 1979 and replacing it with a fundamentalist Islamic Republic inspired by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (190089). The Western-educated classes fled Iran as the clergy tightened control. Radical anti-Western students seized the US embassy and held 66 American hostages (197981). In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, beginning a bitter war that lasted until 1988 (see p. 455). Following the death of Khomeini in 1989, economic necessity brought a less militant phase of the Islamic revolution. The new president, Rafsanjani, emphasized pragmatic rather than radical policies and attempted to heal the diplomatic rift with Western powers. President Saddam Hussein of Iraq returned occupied Iranian territory following the invasion of Kuwait (1990). Iran continues to sponsor militant Islam abroad but tensions inside the regime have increased as economic discontent grows.
Other major cities: Basrah 617000, Mosul 571000, Irbil 334000 (1985 est)
Languages: Arabic (official; 80%), Kurdish (19%)
Religions: Sunni Islam (41%), Shia Islam (51%), various Christian minorities
GOVERNMENT
The 250-member National Assembly is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The non-elected Revolutionary Command Council appoints the President, who appoints a Council of Ministers. The Arab Baath Socialist Party is the only effective legal party. The Kurdish provinces of northern Iraq have de facto self-government.
GEOGRAPHY
The basins of the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates contain most of the arable land and most of the population. Desert in the southwest occupies nearly one half of Iraq. In the northeast, the highlands of Kurdistan rise to 3658 m (12001 ft). Principal rivers: Tigris (Dijlah) 1900 km (1180 mi), Euphrates (al Furat) 2800 km (1740 mi). Climate: Summers are hot and dry with temperatures over 40
C (104
F). Most of the rainfall ranging from 100 mm (4 in) in the desert to 1000 mm (40 in) in the mountains comes in winter.
ECONOMY
Irrigated land in the Tigris and Euphrates basins produces cereals, fruit and vegetables for domestic consumption, and dates for export. Iraq depends upon its substantial reserves of petroleum but exports have been halted by international sanctions and the Gulf War (1991), during which the economy was devastated. Iraq faces economic collapse. Inflation is rampant and there is a shortage of many basic commodities. Currency: Iraqi dinar.
HISTORY
Iraq ancient Mesopotamia was the cradle of the Babylonian, Sumerian, Akkadian and Assyrian civilizations (see pp. 36465). In the 7th century bc Iraq became part of Persias Achaemenid empire (see p. 365). Conquered by Alexander the Great (see pp. 37273), Iraq was then fought over by Parthia and Rome until it was absorbed by the Persian Sassanian Empire. In 637 ad Muslim armies from Arabia defeated the Persians. In 750 the Abbasid dynasty based its caliphate in Baghdad, which became the administrative and cultural capital of the Arab world. Abbasid power was ended by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries, and Iraq was absorbed by the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1534.
In World War I the British occupied the area, but Iraqi nationalists were disappointed when Iraq became a monarchy under a British Mandate (1920). In 1932 Iraq became fully independent. Following a military coup that brought pro-German officers to power in 1941, the British occupied Iraq until 1945. The royal family and the premier were murdered in the Free Officers coup in 1958. A reign of terror against the left followed a further coup in 1963. In 1968 Baathist (pan-Arab nationalist) officers carried out another coup. Embittered by the Arabs humiliation in the 1967 war and by US support for the Israelis (see p. 454), the regime turned to the Soviets.
In 1980 President Saddam Hussein attacked a weakened Iran, responding to Irans threat to export Islamic revolution. What had been intended as a quick victory became a costly war (198088) with many casualties (see p. 455). In an attempt to restore Iraqs economic fortunes Saddam invaded and annexed oil-rich Kuwait (1990). Following Iraqs failure to respond to repeated UN demands to withdraw, the UN authorized armed action by a US-led coalition. Kuwait was liberated in the short Gulf War (1991). After the war, Saddam suppressed revolts by Shiites in the south and Kurds in the north. International efforts established refugee camps for Kurds in a safe zone and the Iraqi authorities lost control of the Kurdish areas. Despite being forced to accept UN inspection of Iraqs chemical and biological weapons and nuclear capacity, Saddam continued to defy UN demands concerning Iraqi disarmament and in 1994 threatened Kuwait again. Faced with the prospect of a renewed coalition, Saddam recognized Kuwaiti independence.
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IRELAND
IRELAND
fficial name: Poblacht na h
ireann (Republic of Ireland)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, OSCE, OECD, WEU (Observer)
Area: 70285 km2 (27137 sq mi)
Population: 3516000 (1993~est)
Capital: Dublin 921000 (city 478000; D
n Laoghaire 55000; 1991 census)
Other major cities: Cork 174000 (city 127000), Limerick 77000 (city 52000), Galway 51000 (1991 census)
Languages: Irish (official; 5% as a first language), English (over 94% as a first language)
Religion: Roman Catholic (93%)
GOVERNMENT
The Seanad (Senate) comprises 60 members 11 nominated by the Taoiseach (Prime Minister), the rest indirectly elected for a five-year term to represent vocational and special interests. The D
il (House) comprises 166 members elected for five years by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation. The President whose role is largely ceremonial is directly elected for a seven-year term. The Taoiseach and a Cabinet of Ministers are appointed by the President upon the nomination of the D
il, to whom they are responsible.
GEOGRAPHY
Central Ireland is a lowland crossed by slight ridges and broad valleys, bogs and large lakes, including Loughs Derg and Ree. Except on the east coast north of Dublin, the lowland is surrounded by coastal hills and mountains, including the Wicklow Mountains, the Ox Mountains and the hills of Connemara and Donegal in the west. The highest uplands in Ireland are the Macgillicuddys Reeks in Kerry (the southwest), rising to Carrauntuohill (1041 m / 3414 ft). The rugged Atlantic Coast is highly indented. Principal river: Shannon 370 km (595 mi). Climate: Ireland has a mild temperate climate. Rainfall is high, ranging from over 2500 mm (100 in) in the west and southwest to 750 mm (30 in) in the east.
ECONOMY
Manufactured goods in particular machinery, metals and engineering, electronics and chemical products now account for over 80% of Irelands exports. Agriculture the traditional mainstay of the economy concentrates upon the production of livestock, meat and dairy products. Food processing and brewing are major industries. Natural resources include lead-zinc, offshore petroleum and natural gas, and HEP sites. Ireland suffers high rates of unemployment and emigration. Currency: Punt (Irish pound).
HISTORY
Christianity, traditionally brought by St Patrick in the 5th century, gave a cultural unity to the kingdoms of Celtic Ireland Connacht, Leinster, Meath, Munster and Ulster. At the end of the 8th century, the Vikings invaded, settling in eastern Ireland, but were eventually defeated in 1014 by Brian Boru, who became effective king of all Ireland. However, throughout the early medieval period, the high kings of Ireland seldom controlled the whole island. In 1171 the English king, Henry II, invaded Ireland and claimed sovereignty over the whole island. The disunited Irish kingdoms quickly succumbed, but the Anglo-Norman settlers and their descendants soon lost their identity and became absorbed by the Irish. For the greater part of the Middle Ages, only the area around Dublin (the Pale) remained loyal to English culture and administration. In the 16th and 17th centuries the English unsuccessfully attempted to convert the Irish to Protestantism. Following three major rebellions against Elizabeth I, new waves of Protestant settlers from England and later (under James I) from Scotland underlined English determination to control Ireland. Many Catholic landholders were deprived of their property following a series of English military actions, of which Oliver Cromwells campaign (164950) is the most notorious.
The Catholic James II, having fled England in 1688, attempted to conquer Ireland. His defeat at the Battle of the Boyne (1690) at the hands of William of Orange (King William III of England) confirmed Protestant domination. The Protestant ascendancy was, however, split Anglicans formed the Anglo-Irish ruling classes, while the Presbyterian descendants of Scottish settlers in Ulster were mainly working class. In the 18th century, both Presbyterians and Roman Catholics pressed for the civil rights that they were largely denied. In 1798 the failure of a nationalist revolt led by Wolfe Tone (176398) was followed by the amalgamation of the British and Irish parliaments and the establishment of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801).
In the 1840s thousands died in the Irish potato famine. Many more were evicted by Anglo-Irish landowners and joined a mass emigration, especially to the USA between 1845 and 1851 Irelands population declined by almost 3000000. Daniel OConnell (17751847) led a movement seeking to repeal the Union, and to gain land and civil rights for the Roman Catholic majority. His campaign helped lead to Catholic Emancipation (1829), after which Irish Catholics were able to become MPs in the British Parliament. However, relations between the Protestant and Catholic communities deteriorated, in part owing to increasingly violent actions by nationalist Fenians whose goal was Irish independence. English policy on Ireland vacillated between conciliation and coercion. Gladstone, recognizing the need for reform, disestablished the (Anglican) Church of Ireland and granted greater security of tenure to peasant farmers. In the 1880s Charles Stewart Parnell (184691) led a sizeable bloc of Irish MPs in a campaign to secure Irish Home Rule (i.e. self-government). Home Rule Bills were introduced in 1883 and 1893, but after their rejection by Parliament, more revolutionary nationalist groups gained support in Ireland.
Fearing Catholic domination, Protestant Unionists in Ulster opposed the Third Home Rule Bill in 1912. Nationalists declared an independent Irish state in the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916, which was put down by the British. After World War I, Irish nationalist MPs formed a provisional government in Dublin led by Eamon de Valera (later PM and President; 18821975). Except in the northeast, British administration in Ireland crumbled and most of the Irish police resigned to be replaced by English officers the Black and Tans. Fighting broke out between nationalists and British troops and police, and by 1919 Ireland had collapsed into violence. The British response in 1920 was to offer Ireland two Parliaments one in Protestant Ulster, another in the Catholic south. Partition was initially rejected by the south, but by the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) dominion status was granted, although six (mainly Protestant) counties in Ulster Northern Ireland opted to remain British. The Irish Free State was proclaimed in 1922 but de Valera and the Republicans refused to accept it. Civil war broke out between the provisional government led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins and the Republicans. The fighting ended in 1923, but de Valeras campaign for a republic continued and in 1937 the Free State became the Republic of Eire. The country remained neutral in World War II and left the Commonwealth as the Republic of Ireland in 1949. Relations between south and north and between the Republic and the UK were often tense during the troubles in Northern Ireland that lasted from 1968 until the ceasefire by terrorist groups in 1994. The Anglo-Irish Agreement (1985) provided for the participation of the Republic in political, legal and security matters in Northern Ireland, and the government of the Republic is taking an active role in the Northern Ireland peace process.
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ISRAEL
ISRAEL
Official name: Medinat Israel (The State of Israel)
Member of: UN
Area: 20770 km2 (8019 sq mi) including East Jerusalem, or 20700 km2 (7992 sq mi) excluding East Jerusalem
Population: 5451000 (1993 est) including East Jerusalem
Capital: Jerusalem (not recognized internationally as capital) 544000 (including East Jerusalem; 1992 est)
Religions: Judaism (official; 85%), Sunni Islam (13%), various Christian denominations
Self-governing Palestinian entity: (with area, population and capital) Gaza and Jericho 412 km2 (159 sq mi) comprising Gaza Strip 352 km2 (136 sq mi) and Jericho 60 km2 (23 sq mi), 780000 (1992 est) comprising Gaza Strip 755000 and Jericho 25000, Gaza City (provisional HQ)
Israeli-occupied territories: (with areas and populations):
Golan 1150 km2 (444 sq mi), 26000 (1990 est);
West Bank (Judaea and Samaria, excluding Jericho and East Jerusalem) 5819 km2 (2247 sq mi), 930000 (1990 est)
GOVERNMENT
The 120-member Assembly (Knesset) is elected by proportional representation for four years by universal adult suffrage. A Prime Minister and Cabinet take office after receiving a vote of confidence from the Knesset. The President is elected for a five-year term by the Knesset.
GEOGRAPHY
Israel within the boundaries established by the 1949 cease-fire line consists of a fertile thin coastal plain beside the Mediterranean, parts of the arid mountains of Judaea in the center, the Negev Desert in the south and part of the Jordan Valley in the northeast. Climate: Israels climate is Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and mild, wetter winters. The greater part of Israel receives less than 200 mm (8 in) of rain a year.
ECONOMY
Severe economic problems stem, in part, from Israels large defense budget and political circumstances, which have until recently prevented trade with neighboring countries. Israel is a major producer and exporter of citrus fruit. Much land is irrigated and over 75% of Israels arable land is farmed by collectives (kibbutzim) and cooperatives. Mineral resources are few, but processing imported diamonds is a major source of foreign currency. Tourism to biblical sites is important. Currency: Shekel.
HISTORY
Israel (Palestine) was occupied by the Hebrews around the 14th century bc. The kingdom of Israel was established about 1021 bc. King David made Jerusalem his capital, and under his successor, Solomon, the Temple was built and Israel prospered. In the 10th century, the kingdom was divided into Israel in the north and Judah in the south, both of which were eventually overrun by the Assyrians. In 587 bc Jerusalem was destroyed and many of its people taken into captivity by the Babylonians. The Persians allowed the Jews to return 50 years later. Palestine was then ruled, in turn, by Alexander the Great, the Ptolomies of Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. Judas Maccabeus revolted against the Seleucids in 141 bc and established a Jewish state that lasted until the Roman conquest in 65 bc. After a revolt against the Romans in ad 135, the Jewish population of Palestine was dispersed the Diaspora and the Jews were scattered in small communities across the Middle East, North Africa and Europe.
Palestine was part of the Byzantine Empire, but in the 7th century an Arab invasion brought the area into the Islamic world (see p. 392). In the 12th and 13th centuries the Crusaders unsuccessfully attempted to retake the Holy Land (see pp. 39899). The Turkish Ottoman Empire ruled the area from the early 16th century until 191718, when Palestine was captured by British forces. The Zionists (see p. 454) had hoped to establish a Jewish state, and this hope was intensified following the Balfour Declaration in favor of a homeland (1917). However, Palestine came under British administration and it was not until 194849 after the murder of some 6000000 Jews in concentration camps by the Nazis (see p. 445) that an explicitly Jewish state emerged. The establishment of a Jewish state met with hostility from Israels neighbors, leading to a series of Arab-Israeli wars (see pp. 45455). Israeli politics in the 1980s and 1990s have been characterized by political instability owing to the system of proportional representation and the large number of very small parties. The large-scale influx of Soviet Jews into Israel after 1990 gave extra impetus to the intifada (Palestinian uprising) against continued Israeli rule in Gaza and the West Bank. Having come under increased international pressure to achieve a Middle East settlement, Israel reached an agreement with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, in 1993 for limited Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and Jericho and an Israeli military withdrawal from these territories. Further peace talks are scheduled but are threatened by Arab opposition to Arafat and the peace process, and by continued expansion of Israeli settlement in the West Bank in defiance of the 1993 agreement.
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ITALY
ITALY
Official name: Repubblica Italiana (Republic of Italy)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, NATO, G7, OECD, OSCE, WEU
Area: 301277 km2 (116324 sq mi)
Population: 57104000 (1991 census)
Capital and major cities: Rome (Roma) 2985000 (city 2791000; 1990 census)
Languages: Italian (official; over 94% as a first language), small Sardinian-, Rhaetic-, Slovene-, German-, French- and Albanian-speaking minorities
Religion: Roman Catholic (83%)
GOVERNMENT
The two houses of Parliament are elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. The Senate (upper house) has 315 members elected by citizens aged 25 and over to represent the regions, plus former Presidents and five life senators, chosen by the President. The Chamber of Deputies has 630 members elected by citizens aged 18 and over. Three quarters of the members of both houses are now elected by the first-past-the-post system; the remaining one quarter are elected under a system of proportional representation. The President is elected for a seven-year term by Parliament and 65 regional representatives. The President appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in Parliament and a Council of Ministers (Cabinet) who are responsible to Parliament. The 20 regions have their own governments.
GEOGRAPHY
The Alps form a natural boundary between Italy and its western and northern neighbors. The highest point in Italy is at 4760 m (15616 ft) just below the summit of Mt Blanc (Monte Bianco). A string of lakes where the mountains meet the foothills include Lakes Maggiore, Lugano and Como. The fertile Po Valley the great lowland of north Italy lies between the Alpine foothills in the north, the Apennine Mountains in the south, the Alps in the west and the Adriatic Sea in the east. The narrow ridge of the Ligurian Alps joins the Maritime Alps to the Apennines, which form a backbone down the entire length of the Italian peninsula. The Italian coastal lowlands are few and relatively restricted, but include the Arno Basin in Tuscany, the Tiber Basin around Rome, the Campania lowlands around Naples, and plains beside the Gulf of Taranto and in Puglia. The islands of Sardinia and Sicily are both largely mountainous. Much of Italy is liable to earthquakes. Italy has four active volcanoes, including Etna on Sicily and Vesuvius near Naples (see p. 82). Principal rivers: Po 652 km (405 mi), Tiber (Tevere) 405 km (252 mi). Climate: Italy enjoys a Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and mild winters. Sicily and Sardinia tend to be warmer and drier than the mainland. The Alps and the Po Valley have colder, wetter winters.
ECONOMY
Northern Italy, with its easy access to the rest of Europe, is the main center of Italian industry. The south, in contrast, remains mainly agricultural, producing grapes, sugar beet, wheat, maize and tomatoes. Most farms are small and many farmers in the south are resistant to change thus average incomes in southern Italy (the Mezzogiorno) are much lower than in the north. Farming in the north is more mechanized and major crops include wheat, maize, rice, grapes (for the important wine industry), fruit and fodder crops for dairy herds. Industrialization in the south is being actively promoted. The industries of the north are well developed and include electrical and electronic goods, motor vehicles and bicycles, textiles, clothing, leather goods, cement, glass and china. The north is also an important financial and banking area, and Milan is the commercial capital of Italy. Apart from marble and Alpine rivers that have been harnessed for HEP, Italy has few natural resources. Tourism and money sent back by Italians living abroad are important sources of foreign currency. A crippling public deficit has added to Italys growing economic problems. Currency: Lira.
HISTORY
Italy has been united twice in modern times, since 1861, and in ancient times under the Romans. The Roman Republic was established in 509 bc (see pp. 37677), and by 272 bc all of peninsular Italy had been united under the rule of Rome. By 200 bc the foundations of the empire had been laid in the territories conquered from Carthage in North Africa and Spain (see p. 377). For the next five centuries Italy was the center of the expanding Roman Empire (see pp. 37879). However, by the middle of the 3rd century ad the Roman Empire began to decline, plagued by civil war, economic problems and foreign invasions (see pp. 38081). Rome was sacked by the Visigoths under Alaric (410), but the beleaguered Western Roman Empire lasted until 476, when Odoacer established a Gothic kingdom based in Rome (see p. 381). Several centuries of chaotic conditions in Italy followed, during which the papacy brought the only stability.
The early Middle Ages saw successive waves of invaders the Byzantines, Lombards, Franks, Arabs, Germans, and, in the 11th century, the Normans (in the south). The papacy attempted to strengthen its position in Rome. The supremacy of the Bishop of Rome in the Western Church had been established in 443, but throughout the next thousand years the papacy had to struggle to maintain its position within the Catholic Church and its position as a temporal power in central Italy. Outside the Papal States, Italy was fragmented into smaller territories. In 800, Charlemagne conquered Italy and had himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope in Rome (see p. 394). Successive emperors strove to maintain control of Italy, but this brought them into continued conflict with increasingly powerful and independent Italian cities such as Milan and also with the popes, who were determined to assert the liberty of the Church (see pp. 394 and 398). Papal disputes with the Holy Roman Empire were common between the 10th and 13th centuries, and these conflicts had repercussions throughout Italy.
By the end of the 13th century, Spanish rulers had established themselves in Sicily and Naples. At the same time, a number of important city-states including Milan, Florence, Genoa and Venice developed in the north. These city-states combined proud republican governments with commercial success and artistic splendor, although they were also afflicted by factional and class divisions, and frequent wars with their neighbors. The republics of Venice and Genoa became great sea powers and established Mediterranean empires in Greece, Cyprus and the Adriatic. In the later Middle Ages, many of the city-states fell prey to powerful local families who established themselves as hereditary rulers for example, the Visconti in Milan, the Gonzaga in Mantua and the Este in Ferrara and Modena. Perhaps the most famous were the Medicis, who took over Florence and eventually became Grand Dukes of Tuscany. The Italian ducal families were great patrons of the arts. The rivalry of their courts as cultural centers benefited sculptors, writers, artists and architects and Renaissance Italy became the artistic heart of Western Europe (see pp. 524 and 528). Republican Venice stood out against the trend of establishing ducal dynasties in the city-states, but the citys role as a major Mediterranean trading power gradually declined.
In the late 15th century north Italy was invaded by the French. After a bitter struggle for supremacy between the French Valois kings and the Habsburgs (see p. 410), the Habsburg Emperor Charles V gained control of much of Italy. On the division of his empire between the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, much of Italy passed to the Austrian branch. French withdrawal from the north was matched by the rise to power of the rulers of Piedmont-Savoy, who after 1720 also became kings of Sardinia. While some states felt the effect of the Enlightenment or of more efficient government during the 18th century (see pp. 41819), most Italian states hardly progressed in the 17th and 18th centuries. The kingdom of Naples (ruled by Spanish Bourbons) and the Papal States suffered reactionary and inefficient government.
During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (see pp. 42627), Napoleon annexed part of the peninsula and redrew ancient boundaries. The old order was essentially restored by the Congress of Vienna (1815) with the kingdom of Sardinia(-Piedmont) and the Austrian provinces of Lombardy-Venetia in the north, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples) in the south, and the Papal States and minor duchies in the center. Napoleon had, however, created a kingdom of Italy (based in Milan) and memories of this short-lived state and of Napoleonic efficiency and modernization remained. Revolts against the traditional rulers erupted in 1830 and again in 1848. Austrian control in Lombardy-Venetia and the duchies ensured that there would be no reform in the north, while Bourbon rule kept the south under a heavy yoke. Political activity was often confined to secret societies and was frequently expressed in violence. Reform and unity eventually came under the king of Sardinia(-Piedmont) Victor Emmanuel II (reigned 184978) and his premier Count Camillo di Cavour (181061), who seized opportunities to advance unification with French assistance (see p. 428). The nationalist guerrilla leader Giuseppe Garibaldi (180782) liberated Naples and Sicily (the Two Sicilies) from the Bourbons, adding the south to the new kingdom of Italy uniting most of the peninsula that was proclaimed in 1861. Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870) were subsequently included (see p. 428).
Political development after unification was unsteady. Overseas ventures such as the attempt to annex parts of Ethiopia (189596) were often frustrated. Parliament was held in low esteem and the end of the 19th century saw a series of assassinations, including King Umberto I in 1900. Italy entered World War I on the Allied side in the expectation of territorial gains from Austria (see p. 436). However, Italy won far less territory than anticipated in the peace treaties after the war (see p. 441), when fear of Communist revolution led to an upsurge of Fascism (see p. 442). Benito Mussolini (18831945) became Prime Minister in 1922 with a program of extensive domestic modernization and an aggressive foreign policy (see p. 443). In 1936 Italy allied with Germany in the Rome-Berlin Axis (see p. 443), and in 1940 war was declared on Britain and France. When Italy was invaded by Allied troops in 1943, Mussolini was dismissed by the king and Italy joined the Allies.
In 1946 a republic was proclaimed. Communist influence increased, both at local and national level. However, the dominance of the (conservative) Christian Democrats kept the Communists out of the succeeding coalitions that ruled Italy and after 198990 the Communists declined as a political force. Particularly in the 1970s, terrorist movements of both the left and the right were active, kidnapping and assassinating senior political and industrial figures. Attempts have been made to effect a true unification of the country by encouraging the economic development of the south. However, the political structure of Italy remains unstable, with a succession of short-lived coalitions, and in the 1990s public disillusion with state institutions grew. Italy was weakened by corruption, the activities of the Mafia and the growth of regional separatism in the north. The traditional political parties collapsed and, after constitutional reform (1993), new political movements including the (populist) Forza Italia, the (regional separatist) Northern League, the (right-wing) National Alliance and (former Communist) Democratic Party of the Left dominated the first elections of the Second Republic in 1994. However, instability remained and the right-wing coalition government lasted less than one year.
The 60-member House of Representatives is elected for five years by universal suffrage. The 21-member Senate is appointed on the advice of the PM and the Leader of the Opposition. The Governor General the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Jamaica appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House. The PM appoints a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Coastal lowlands surround the interior limestone plateau (the Cockpit Country) and mountains. The latter include the Blue Mountains, which rise to Blue Mountain Peak at 2256 m (7402 ft). Climate: The lowlands are tropical and rainy; the highlands are cooler and wetter.
ECONOMY
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, with sugar cane and bananas as the main crops. Jamaica is a leading exporter of bauxite. Tourism is a major foreign currency earner.Currency: Jamaican dollar.
HISTORY
Jamaica which was originally inhabited by Arawak Indians was sighted by Columbus (1494) and claimed for Spain. It became British in 1655. Black slaves were brought from Africa to work the sugar plantations. The abolition of slavery in the 1830s destroyed the plantation system. By the 1930s, severe social and economic problems led to rioting and the birth of political awareness. Since independence in 1962, power has alternated between the radical Peoples National Party led until 1992 by Michael Manley and the more conservative Jamaican Labor Party
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JAPAN
JAPAN
Official name: Nihon (The Land of the Rising Sun/Japan)
Other major cities: Osaka 8735000 (city 2603000; Kobe 1457000; Sakai 803000), Kyoto 2606000, Nagoya 2162000, Sapporo 1717000, Fukuoka 1262000, Hiroshima 1097000, Kitakyushu 1021000, Sendai 889000, Okayama 597000, Kumamoto 579000 (1990 est).
Language: Japanese (official)
Religions: Shintoism (about 40%) overlaps with Buddhism (74%), Christian denominations (4%)
GOVERNMENT
The Emperor is head of state but has no executive power. The 252-member House of Councilors the upper house of the Diet is elected for six years by universal adult suffrage. One half of the councilors retire every three years. A system of proportional representation is used to elect 50 of the councilors. The 500-member House of Representatives is directly elected for 4 years 300 members are elected by the first-past-the-post system and 200 members elected under a system of proportional representation. The Diet chooses a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the lower house. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet of Ministers, who are responsible to the Diet.
GEOGRAPHY
Japan consists of over 3900 islands, of which Hokkaido in the north occupies 22% of the total land area, and Shikoku and Kyushu in the south respectively occupy 5% and 11% of the area. The central island of Honshu occupies 61% of the area and contains 80% of the population. To the south of these main islands, the Ryukyu Islands including Okinawa stretch almost to Taiwan. Nearly 75% of Japan is mountainous. The population is concentrated into small coastal plains. The principal lowlands are Kanto (around Tokyo), Nobi (around Nagoya) and the Sendai Plain in the north of Honshu. The highest peak is Fujiyama at 3776 m (12388 ft), an extinct volcano. There are also over 60 active volcanoes, and the country is prone to severe earthquakes. Climate: Japan experiences great variations in climate. Although the whole country is temperate, the north has long cold snowy winters, while the south has hot summers and mild winters. Rainfall totals are high, with heavy rain and typhoons being common in the summer months.
ECONOMY
Despite the generally crowded living conditions in the cities, the Japanese enjoy a high standard of living. The country has the second largest industrial economy in the world, despite having very few natural resources. Japanese industry is heavily dependent on imported raw materials about 90% of Japans energy requirements are imported and petroleum is the single largest import. Japans economic success is based on manufacturing industry, which with construction employs 30% of the labor force. Japan is the worlds leading manufacturer of motor vehicles, and one of the major producers of ships, steel, synthetic fibers, chemicals, cement, electrical goods and electronic equipment. Rapid advances in Japanese research and technology have helped the expanding export-led economy. The banking and financial sectors have prospered, and Tokyo is one of the worlds main stock exchanges and commercial centers. Agriculture is labor intensive. Although Japan is self-sufficient in rice, agriculture is not a priority and a high percentage of its food requirements particularly cereals and fodder crops have to be imported. The traditional Japanese diet is sea-based and the fishing industry is a large one. Currency: Yen.
HISTORY
Japanese myth dates the first emperor, Jimmu, to 660 bc. However, the first known emperors reigned in Nara in the 8th century ad. The rise of imperial power, the feudal system and the shogunate in Japan are covered on pp. 38687. At the end of the 19th century, the Meiji Emperor overthrew the last shogun and restored power to the throne. He encouraged Western institutions and a Western-style economy, so that by the beginning of the 20th century Japan was rapidly industrializing and on the brink of becoming a world power (see p. 387).
By the end of the Meiji era (1912), Japan had established an empire. Japan had defeated China (189495) taking Port Arthur and Taiwan and startled Europe by beating Russia (190405) by land and at sea. Korea was annexed in 1910. Allied with Britain from 1902, Japan entered World War I against Germany in 1914, in part to gain acceptance as an imperial world power. However, Japan gained little except some of the German island territories in the Pacific and became disillusioned that the country did not seem to be treated as an equal by the Great Powers. The rise of militarism and collapse of world trade led to the rise of totalitarianism and a phase of aggressive Japanese expansion (see pp. 44243). Japan became allied to Nazi Germany and in 1941 Japanese aircraft struck Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, bringing the USA into World War II (see p. 44445). An initial rapid Japanese military expansion across Southeast Asia and the Pacific was halted, and the war ended for Japan in disastrous defeat and the horrors of atomic warfare.
Emperor Hirohito (reigned 192689) surrendered in 1945. Shintoism which had come to be identified with aggressive nationalism ceased to be the state religion, and in 1946 the emperor renounced his divinity. The Allied occupation (194552) democratized politics and began an astonishing economic recovery based on an aggressive export policy. The economy was jolted by major rises in petroleum prices in 1973 and 1979, but Japan maintained its advance to become a technological front-runner and, after the USA, the worlds second largest economy. However, Japans protectionism has led to accusations of unfair trading practices. By 1988 Japan surpassed the USA as the worlds largest aid-donor. The Japanese political world was dominated by the Liberal Democrats, who held office from 1955 to 1993 despite a number of financial scandals. Since then a number of coalitions have held power.
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Official name: Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniya al-Hashemiyah (The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan)
Member of: UN, Arab League
Area: 88946 km2 (34342 sq mi)
Population: 3765000 (1993 est)
Capital: Amman 1160000 (1986 est)
Other major cities: Zarqa 318000, Irbid 168000, Salt 134000 (1986 est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religion: Sunni Islam (over 80%), Shia Islam (minority)
GOVERNMENT
Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. The King appoints the 30 members of the Senate for eight years. The 80-member House of Representatives is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage.
GEOGRAPHY
The steep escarpment of the East Bank Uplands which rise to 1754 m (5755 ft) at Jabal Ramm borders the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea. Deserts cover over 80% of the country. Principal rivers: Jordan (Urdun) 321 km (200 mi). Climate: The summers are hot and dry; the winters are cooler and wetter, although much of Jordan experiences very low rainfall.
ECONOMY
Apart from potash the main export Jordan has few resources. Arable land accounts for only 5% of the total area. Foreign aid and money sent back by Jordanians working abroad are major sources of foreign currency. Currency: Jordanian dinar.
HISTORY
After being incorporated into the biblical kingdoms of Solomon and David, the region was ruled, in turn, by the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian and Seleucid empires (see pp. 36465 and 37273). The Nabateans based at Petra controlled Jordan from the 4th century bc until 64 bc, when the area came under Roman rule. Jordan was part of the Byzantine Empire (see p. 394) from 394 until 636, when Muslim Arab forces were victorious in the Battle of Yarmouk. At first, Jordan prospered under Muslim rule but declined when the Abbasid caliphs moved their capital to Baghdad (see p. 392). In the 11th and 12th centuries, Crusader states flourished briefly in Jordan (see pp. 39899). The area was conquered by the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. In World War I the British aided an Arab revolt against Ottoman rule. The League of Nations awarded the area east of the River Jordan Transjordan to Britain as part of Palestine (1920), but in 1923 Transjordan became a separate emirate. In 1946 the country gained complete independence as the Kingdom of Jordan with Amir Abdullah (18801951) as its sovereign.
The Jordanian army fought with distinction in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War (see p. 455), and occupied the West Bank territories, which were formally incorporated into Jordan in 1950. In 1951 Abdullah was assassinated. His grandson King Hussein (reigned 1952 ) was initially threatened by radicals encouraged by Egypts President Nasser. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War (see p. 455), Jordan lost the West Bank, including Arab Jerusalem, to the Israelis. In the 1970s, the power of the Palestinian guerrillas in Jordan challenged the very existence of the Jordanian state. After a short bloody civil war in 1979 the Palestinian leadership fled abroad. King Hussein renounced all responsibility for the West Bank in 1988. A ban on party politics ended in 1991. There has since been a growth in support for Islamic fundamentalism.# In 1994 Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel.
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KAZAKHSTAN
Official name: Qazaqstan Respublikasi (The Republic of Kazakhstan)
Member of: UN, CIS, OSCE
Area: 2717300 km2 (1049200 sq mi)
Population: 17170000 (1993 est)
Capital: Alma-Ata (Almaty) 1156000 (1991 est)
Other major cities: Karaganda (Qaraghandy) 609000, Chimkent (Shymkent) 439000 (1991 est)
Languages: Kazakh (40%), Russian (38%), German
Religions: Sunni Islam majority, Russian Orthodox
GOVERNMENT
An executive President and 135 members of the 177-member Parliament (Kenges) are elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The remaining 42 members of the Kenges are elected from a state list by national and regional government officials (who are state appointees). The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Kazakhstan comprises a vast expanse of low tablelands (steppes) in Central Asia. In the west, plains descend below sea level beside the Caspian Sea. Uplands include ranges of hills in the north and mountain chains, including the Tien Shan, in the south and east, where Khan Tengri, at 6398 m (20991 ft), is the highest point. Kazakhstan has several salt lakes, including the Aral Sea, which is shrinking because of excessive extraction of irrigation water from its tributaries. Deserts include the Kyzylkum in the south, the Kara Kum in the center, and the Barsuki in the north. Principal river: Syrdarya 3019 km (1876 mi). Climate: The Kazakh climate is characterized by bitterly cold winters and hot summers. Rainfall is low, ranging from 200 mm (8 in) in the north to 500 mm (20 in) or more in the southeast, and negligible in the deserts.
ECONOMY
Kazakhstan is a major supplier of food and raw materials for industry to other former Soviet republics, particularly Russia. The transition to a market economy was begun in earnest in 1994. Agriculture employs almost 50% of the labor force. Large collective farms on the steppes in the north contributed one third of the cereal crop of the former USSR. Other major farming interests include sheep, fodder crops, fruit, vegetables and rice. Kazakhstan is rich in natural resources, including coal, tin, copper, lead, zinc, gold, chromite, oil and natural gas. Kazakhstan has attracted Western investment to exploit its mineral wealth. Industry is represented by iron and steel (in the Karaganda coalfield), pharmaceuticals, food processing and cement. Currency: Tenge.
HISTORY
The Kazakhs first appear in written history in the late 15th century, when they established a nomadic empire in the west and center of the present republic. Between 1488 and 1518 Kazakh khans controlled virtually all the Central Asian steppes, but before 1600 the Kazakh khanate split into three separate hordes. In the 18th century the Russians began to penetrate the Kazakh steppes and were initially welcomed as overlords in exchange for protection from the Oryats, who were raiding the area. Revolts against Russian rule were suppressed (179294) and what little autonomy the khans still enjoyed was abolished between 1822 and 1848. During the Tsarist period there was large-scale Russian peasant settlement on the steppes, but Russian rule was resented and there was a major Kazakh revolt during World War I.
After the Russian revolution (see p. 438), Kazakh nationalists formed a local government and demanded autonomy (1917). The Soviet Red Army invaded in 1920. Kazakhstan did not become a full Union Republic within the USSR until 1936. Widespread immigration from other parts of the USSR became a flood in 195456, when the Virgin Lands of north Kazakhstan were opened up for farming. By the time Kazakhstan declared independence following the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (September 1991) the Kazakhs formed a minority within their own republic. When the USSR was dissolved (December 1991), Kazakhstan was internationally recognized as an independent republic. The vast new Kazakh state occupies a pivotal position within Central Asia.
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KENYA
KENYA
Official names: Jamhuri ya Kenya and Republic of Kenya
Other major cities: Mombasa 426000, Kisumu 167000, Nakuru 102000 (1985 est)
Languages: Swahili (official), English, Kikuyu (21%), Luhya (14%), Luo (11%), with over 200 tribal languages
Religions: Roman Catholic (27%), Independent African Churches (27%), various Protestant Churches (19%), animist (19%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and 188 members of the 200-member National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage every five years. The remaining Assembly members, the Vice President and the Cabinet of Ministers are appointed by the President.
GEOGRAPHY
The steep-sided Rift Valley divides the highlands that run from north to south through central Kenya. The highest peak, Mount Kenya, rises to 5199 m (17058 ft). Plateau extend in the west to Lake Victoria and in the east to coastal lowlands. Climate: The coastal areas have a hot and humid equatorial climate. The highlands which are cooler experience high rainfall. The north is very hot and arid.
ECONOMY
Over 75% of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Major crops include wheat and maize for domestic consumption, and coffee, tea, sisal and sugar cane for export. Large numbers of beef cattle are reared, and Kenya is one of the few states in black Africa to have a major dairy industry. Tourism is an important source of foreign currency. Currency: Kenya shilling.
HISTORY
Arabs established coastal settlements from the 7th century, and the Portuguese were active on the Kenyan coast from 1498 until the 17th century, when they were evicted by the Arabs. The varied black African peoples of the area were brought forcibly under British rule in 1895 in the East African Protectorate, which became the colony of Kenya in 1920. White settlement in the highlands was bitterly resented by the Africans particularly the Kikuyu whose land was taken. Racial discrimination and attacks on African customs also created discontent. Black protest movements emerged in the 1920s and, after 1945, developed into nationalism, led by Jomo Kenyatta (c. 18931978), who in 1947 became the first president of the Kenya African Union. When the violent Mau Mau rising which involved mainly Kikuyu people broke out (195256), Kenyatta was held responsible and was imprisoned on doubtful evidence (195361). After the British had crushed the Mau Mau revolt in a bloody campaign, they negotiated with Kenyatta and the other nationalists. Independence, under Kenyattas KANU party, followed in 1963. His moderate leadership and pro-capitalist policies were continued by his successor, Daniel arap Moi. Considerable restrictions on political activity followed an attempted military coup (1982). From 1969 to 1991, KANU was the only legal political party, but multi-party elections were held in 1993.
Religions: Roman Catholic (over 50%), Kiribati Protestant (Congregational; over 40%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and 39 members of the Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage every four years. A member for Banaba, and an additional member, are appointed to the Assembly. The President appoints a Cabinet, which is responsible to the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
With the exception of the island of Banaba which is composed of phosphate rock Kiribati comprises three groups of small coral atolls. Climate: Kiribati has a maritime equatorial climate with high rainfall.
ECONOMY
Most islanders are involved in subsistence farming and fishing. Copra is almost the only export. Currency:Kiribati uses Australian currency.
HISTORY
Kiribati has been inhabited by Micronesians for almost 4000 years (see p. 389). In the 18th century, the atolls were discovered by British sea captains, including Thomas Gilbert. The Gilbert Islands which became British in 1892 were occupied by Japan (194243). British nuclear weapons were tested on Christmas Island (195764). In 1979, the Gilbert Islands gained independence as Kiribati (pronounced Kiri-bass).
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KOREA_D
KOREA DPR
(North Korea)
Official name: Chosun Minchu-chui Inmin Konghwa-guk (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea). Popularly known as North Korea.
Member of: UN
Area: 122762 km2 (47398 sq mi)
Population: 22645000 (1993 est)
Capital: Pyongyang 2640000 (1986 est)
Other major cities: Hamhung 775000, Chongjin 755000 (1986 est)
Language: Korean
Religions: Daoism and Confucianism (14%), Chondism (14%)
GOVERNMENT
The Party Congress of the (Communist) Korean Workers Party elects a Central Committee, which, in turn, elects a Politburo, the seat of effective power. Unopposed elections are held every four years for the 615-member Supreme Peoples Assembly. The Assembly elects the President, Prime Minister and Central Peoples Committee, which nominates Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Over three quarters of the country consists of mountains, which rise in the northeast to the volcanic peak Mount Paek-tu at 2744 m (9003 ft). Climate: The country has long cold dry winters and hot wet summers.
ECONOMY
Over 30% of the labor force work on cooperative farms, mainly growing rice. Natural resources include coal, zinc, magnetite and iron ore. Great emphasis has been placed on industrial development, notably metallurgy and machine-building. The end of barter deals with the former USSR (199091) brought a sharp economic decline. Money sent home by North Koreans working in Japan and Russia is the main foreign-currency earner. Currency: Won.
HISTORY
Korea a Japanese possession from 1910 to 1945 was divided into zones of occupation in 1945. The USSR established a Communist republic in their zone north of the 38th parallel (1948). North Korea launched a surprise attack on the South in June 1950, hoping to achieve reunification by force. The Korean War (195053; see p. 450) devastated the peninsula. At the ceasefire in 1953 the frontier was re-established close to the 38th parallel. North Korea has the worlds first Communist dynasty, whose personality cult has surpassed even that of Stalin. President Kim Il-Sung (191294) and his son and successor Kim Jong-Il have rejected any reform of the countrys Communist system. Since the collapse of Communism in the former USSR and Eastern Europe, North Korea has become increasingly isolated. The countrys refusal to allow international inspection of suspected nuclear weapons installations increased tension in 1994. However, agreement was~reached with the USA by which America will supply light-water reactors which could not be used for nuclear weapons in return for North Korea dismantling its nuclear development program.
Official name: Daehan-Minkuk (Republic of Korea). Popularly known as South Korea.
Member of: UN, Apec
Area: 99326 km2 (38350 sq mi)
Population: 44042000 (1993 est)
Capital: Seoul (Soul) 11000000 (city 10613000; 1990 census)
Other major cities: Pusan 3825000, Taegu 2248000, Inchon 1682000, Kwangju 1206000, Taejon 1062000 (1990 census)
Language: Korean (official)
Religions: Buddhist (24%), various Protestant Churches (16%), Roman Catholic (5%)
GOVERNMENT
The 299-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage every four years 237 members are directly elected to represent constituencies; the remaining 62 members are chosen under a system of proportional representation. The President who appoints a State Council (Cabinet) and a Prime Minister is directly elected for a single five-year term.
GEOGRAPHY
Apart from restricted coastal lowlands and the densely populated Han and Naktong basins, most of the country is mountainous. The highest point is Halla-san (1950 m / 6398 ft), an extinct volcano on Cheju island. Climate: Korea experiences cold dry winters and hot summers during which the monsoon brings heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
One fifth of the labor force is involved in farming. The principal crops are rice and barley. South Korean industry is dominated by a small number of large family conglomerates. The important textile industry was the original manufacturing base. South Korea is now the worlds leading producer of ships and footwear and a major producer of electronic equipment, electrical goods, steel, petrochemicals and motor vehicles. Banking and finance are expanding. The country experienced high economic growth rates in the 1980s and early 1990s. Currency: Won.
HISTORY
Even before the kingdom of Silla united the rest of Korea into a single state (668), the Korean peninsula acted as a bridge between China and Japan, adapting Chinese culture as it transmitted it to Japan. The Mongols overran the country in 1259 and ruled for a century, but Korea maintained its distinctive identity. The Yi dynasty (13921910) gave Korea a long period of cultural continuity. China helped the Koreans to repulse a Japanese invasion in 1592, exacting recognition of Chinese overlordship in return. From the 17th century, Korea became the Hermit Kingdom, cutting itself off from the outside world. In 1910 Korea fell victim to a harsh Japanese colonial rule. After World War II, the peninsula was divided into Soviet and US zones of occupation. In 1948 the Republic of Korea was established in the American (southern) zone. The surprise invasion of the South by the Communist North precipitated the Korean War (195053; see p. 450). The war cost a million lives and ended in stalemate with the division of Korea confirmed. Closely allied to the US, an astonishing economic transformation took place in South Korea. However, the country has experienced long periods of authoritarian rule, including the presidencies of Syngman Rhee and Park Chung-Hee, but the election of ex-General Roh Tae Woo (1987) introduced a more open regime. Much prestige was gained through the successful Seoul Olympic Games. The establishment of trading and diplomatic contacts with China and former Communist countries has further isolated North Korea.
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KUWAIT
KUWAIT
Official name: Daulat al-Kuwait (State of Kuwait)
Member of: UN, Arab League, OPEC, GCC
Area: 17 818 km2 (6880 sq mi)
Population: 1430000 (1993 est)
Capital: Kuwait City 1375000 (including agglomeration; 1993 unofficial est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; 70%), Shia Islam (30%)
GOVERNMENT
Kuwait is a monarchy ruled by an Amir, who appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet. A 50-member National Assembly is elected for four years by literate male Kuwaiti nationals whose families fulfil stringent residence qualifications.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Kuwait is desert, relatively flat and low lying. Climate: Kuwait experiences extremes of heat in summer. Almost all the annual rainfall of 100 mm (4 in) comes during the cooler winter.
ECONOMY
The economy was devastated by the Iraqi invasion and Gulf War (1991), but reconstruction followed rapidly. Large reserves of petroleum and natural gas are the mainstay of the economy. Owing to lack of water, little agriculture is possible. Currency: Kuwait dinar.
HISTORY
Islam came to Kuwait during the Prophet Muhammads lifetime. In 1760 the Sabah family created the emirate that has lasted to today, although from 1899 to 1961 Kuwait was a British-protected state. Oil was discovered in 1938 and was produced commercially from 1946. In August 1990 Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. When Iraq failed to respond to repeated UN demands to withdraw, the UN authorized armed action. Kuwait was liberated by a US-led coalition early in 1991 in the short Gulf War. After liberation, pressure for constitutional change grew and the constitution (suspended since 1968) was restored. Before 1990, Kuwait had a large population of foreign workers, mainly Palestinians, who were perceived to have favored the Iraqi occupation forces. Since 1991, most of the non-Kuwaiti Arab workers have fled or been deported, to be replaced by migrants from the Indian subcontinent on short-term contracts. Iraq made further threats against Kuwait in 1994 but was~forced to climb down and formally recognize Kuwaiti independence after international pressure.
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KYRGYZST
KYRGYZSTAN
Official name: Kyrgyzstan Respublikasy (Republic of Kyrgyzstan). Formerly known as Kirghizia
Languages: Kyryz (53%), Russian (21%), Uzbek (13%)
Religion: Sunni Islam majority
GOVERNMENT
A 105-member legislature and an executive President are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The parliament divides into a 35-member house that is in permanent session and a 70-member house that meets occasionally. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Kyrgyzstan lies within the Tien Shan mountains, rising at Pik Pobedy to 7439 m (24406 ft). Restricted lowlands including the Chu valley and part of the Fergana valley contain most of the population. Climate: The countrys altitude and position deep within the interior of Asia combine to produce an extreme continental climate with low precipitation.
ECONOMY
Agriculture is dominated by large (still mainly collectivized) farms that specialize in growing fodder crops for sheep and goats, and cotton under irrigation. Natural resources include coal, lead, zinc and great HEP potential. Food processing and light industry are expanding and privatization has begun. Problems include a lack of investment and a brain drain of qualified Russians. Currency: Som.
HISTORY
The Kyrgyz a Turkic people are thought to have migrated to the region in the 12th century. Although nominally subject to Uzbek khans, the nomadic Kyrgyz retained their independence until after 1850, when the area was annexed by Russia. Opposition to the Russians (who were given most of the best land) was expressed in a major revolt in 1916 and continuing guerrilla activity after the Russian Revolution. A Soviet Republic was founded in 1926 and Kirghizia became a full Union Republic within the USSR in 1936. After the abortive coup by Communist hardliners, Kirghizia declared independence and under its new name, Kyrgyzstan received international recognition when the Soviet Union was dissolved (1991).
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Official name: Saathiaranagroat Prachhathippatay Prachhachhon Lao (The Lao Peoples Democratic Republic)
Member of: UN
Area: 236800 km2 (91429 sq mi)
Population: 4533000 (1991 est)
Capital: Vientiane (Viengchane) 422000 (1990 est)
Language: Lao (official; 96%)
Religion: Buddhism (57%), traditional local religions
GOVERNMENT
There is constitutional provision for a 79-member Supreme Peoples Assembly elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers are effectively responsible to the Central Committee of the (Communist) Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party. A new constitution is to be drafted.
GEOGRAPHY
Except for the Plain of Jars in the north and the Mekong Valley and low plateau in the south, Laos is mountainous. Phou Bia (2820 m / 9252 ft) is the highest peak. Principal river: Mekong 4350 km (2702 mi). Climate: Laos has a tropical climate with heavy monsoon rains between May and October.
ECONOMY
Laos is one of the poorest countries in the world. Most Laotians work on collective farms, mainly growing rice. Western investment has been encouraged since 1990. Currency: Kip.
HISTORY
The powerful Laotian Buddhist kingdom of Lan Xang was established in the 14th century and divided into three in 1707. A French protectorate was established in 1893. Japanese occupation in World War II led to a declaration of independence which the French finally accepted in 1954 (see p. 452). However, the kingdom was wracked by civil war, with royalist forces fighting Communist Pathet Lao. The Viet Cong used Laos as a supply route in the Vietnam War (see p. 452), and US withdrawal from Vietnam allowed the Pathet Lao to take over Laos (1975). Since 1990 the government has begun to introduce reforms, but there is no suggestion that a multi-party system will be tolerated.
Official name: Latvijas Republika (Republic of Latvia)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 64610 km2 (24946 sq mi)
Population: 2595000 (1993 est)
Capital: Riga 897000 (1992 est)
Other major cities: Daugavpils 127000, Liepaja 114000 (1992 est)
Languages: Lettish (over 53%), Russian (34%)
Religions: Lutheran (22%), Roman Catholic (7%)
GOVERNMENT
A President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet and a 100-member Assembly (Saeima) are elected by universal adult suffrage for three years.
GEOGRAPHY
Latvia comprises an undulating plain, lower in the west (Courland) than in the east (Livonia), which rises to 311 m (1020 ft). Climate: Latvia has a moist, temperate climate with mild summers and cold winters.
ECONOMY
Engineering dominates a heavily industrialized economy. Latvia has relied on Russian trade and faces severe difficulties as it introduces a free market. Agriculture specializes in dairying and meat production. Currency: Lat.
HISTORY
Latvia was ruled by the (German) Teutonic Knights from 1237 until 1561. The east (Livonia) was Polish until 1629, then Swedish until 171021, when it was taken by Russia. The west (Courland) was an autonomous duchy until annexed by Russia in 1795. Latvian national consciousness grew throughout the 19th century. Following the Communist takeover in Russia (1917), Latvian nationalists declared independence (1918). A democratic system lasted until 1936 when General Ulmanis established a dictatorship. The Non-Aggression Pact (1939) between Hitler and Stalin assigned Latvia to the USSR, which invaded and annexed the republic (1940). After occupation by Nazi Germany (194144), Soviet rule was reimposed. Large-scale Russian settlement replaced over 200000 Latvians, who were killed or deported to Siberia. In 1988, reforms in the USSR allowed Latvian nationalists to operate openly. Nationalists won a majority in Latvias parliament and seceded following the failed coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (1991). The USSR recognized Latvias independence in September 1991. Tension remains over the large Russian minority in Latvia.
Other major city: Tripoli (Tarabulus) 240 000 (1990 est) Language: Arabic (official)
Religions: Islam Shia (31%) and Sunni (27%), Druze minority; Maronite Christian (22%), other Christian Churches (16%; Armenian, Greek Orthodox, Syrian)
GOVERNMENT
A 108-member National Assembly comprising 54 deputies elected by Muslims, 54 by Christians is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Assembly elects a (Maronite) President, who appoints a (Sunni Muslim) Prime Minister, who, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers (six Christians and five Muslims).
GEOGRAPHY
Beside a narrow coastal plain, the mountains of Lebanon rise to 3088 m (10131 ft). Beyond the fertile Bekaa Valley, to the east, are the Anti-Lebanese range and Hermon Mountains. Climate: The lowlands have a Mediterranean climate. The cooler highlands receive heavy winter snowfall.
ECONOMY
Reconstruction of an economy devastated by civil war began in 1991. The principal agricultural crops are citrus fruit (grown mainly for export), wheat, barley and olives. The illegal cultivation of opium poppies is economically significant. The textile and chemical industries and the financial sector are important. Currency: Lebanese Pound.
HISTORY
Lebanon the home of the ancient Phoenicians (see p. 364) came, in turn, under Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Seleucid, Roman and Byzantine rule. The early Islamic conquests bypassed the Lebanese mountains, leaving important Maronite Christian enclaves. From the 10th century, Shia Islam (see p. 392) came to Lebanon, and in the 11th century the Druzes (a breakaway sect from the Shiites) became a significant force in the region. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Crusader state of Tripoli (see pp. 39899) flourished in Lebanon; in the 14th century the area was ruled by Mamluks from Egypt. In 1516 the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire took Lebanon, administering it as part of Syria, although Druze princes enjoyed considerable autonomy. Intercommunal friction was never far from the surface. A massacre of thousands of Maronites by the Druzes (1860) brought French intervention. After World War I, France received Syria as a League of Nations mandate, and created a separate Lebanese territory to protect Christian interests. The constitution under which Lebanon became independent in 1943 enshrined power-sharing between Christians and Muslims.
The relative toleration between the various religious groups in Lebanon began to break down in the late 1950s when Muslim numerical superiority failed to be matched by corresponding constitutional changes. Radical Muslim supporters of the union of Syria and Egypt in 1958 clashed with the pro-Western party of Camille Chamoun (President 195258). Civil war ensued, and US marines landed in Beirut to restore order. The 1967 Arab-Israeli war (see p. 455) and the exile of the Palestinian leadership to Beirut (197071) destabilized Lebanon. Civil war broke out in 1975, with subsequent Syrian and Israeli interventions (see p. 455). The war plunged the country into ungovernable chaos. In 1990 the defeat of Christian militia by Syrian troops allowed the Lebanese government to reassert its authority over the whole of Beirut. Most Lebanese sectarian militias were disarmed in 1991, when the civil war seemed to be over. However, Israeli-sponsored forces continue to occupy the south and the (Islamic fundamentalist) Hizbollah forces control the Bekaa Valley.# The continued presence of Syrian troops on Lebanese soil has permitted a reconstruction of the Lebanese state.
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LESOTHO
LESOTHO
Official name: The Kingdom of Lesotho
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAU
Area: 30355 km2 (11720 sq mi)
Population: 1903000 (1993 est)
Capital: Maseru 130000 (city 110000; 1988 est)
Languages: Sesotho and English both official
Religions: Roman Catholic (44%), various Protestant Churches (49%)
GOVERNMENT
Lesotho is a constitutional monarchy in which the King is the ceremonial head of state. A 65-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. A Prime Minister and a Cabinet of Ministers are responsible to the Assembly. The Senate (upper house) consists of nominated members and traditional chiefs.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Lesotho is mountainous. Thabana Ntlenyana in the Drakensberg Mountains rises to (3482 m / 11425 ft). Climate: Lesotho has a mild subtropical climate with lower temperatures in the highlands.
ECONOMY
Livestock cattle, sheep and goats (for mohair) are the mainstay of the economy. Natural resources include diamonds. Abundant water is exported to South Africa. About one third of Lesothos adult male labor force is employed in South Africa. Currency: Loti (plural Maloti).
HISTORY
Lesotho was founded in the 1820s by the Sotho leader Moshoeshoe I (c. 17901870). The kingdom escaped incorporation in South Africa by becoming a British protectorate (known as Basutoland) in 1868. Since independence (1966), land-locked Lesotho remains dependent on South Africa. Chief Jonathan (PM 196686) attempted to limit South African influence but was deposed in a coup. Further political instability followed. King Moshoeshoe II was deposed by the military (1990), replaced by his son (Letsie III), and eventually restored (1995) after Letsie attempted to dismiss the elected government.
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LIBERIA
LIBERIA
Official name: The Republic of Liberia
Member of: UN, OAU, ECOWAS
Area: 99067 km2 (38250 sq mi)
Population: 2885000 (1993 est); in 1994 up to 800000 of this total were refugees in neighboring countries
Capital: Monrovia 465000 (1987 est)
Language: English (official)
Religions: animist (50%), Sunni Islam (26%), Christian Churches (24%)
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for a President, 26-member Senate and 64-member House of Representatives to be elected for six years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Cabinet of Ministers. The Liberian political system broke down in 1990 owing to civil war. A provisional Council of State has~been formed and a return to constitutional rule has been agreed to take effect in 1996.
GEOGRAPHY
A low swampy coastal belt borders a higher zone of tropical forest. Further inland, plateau rise to Mount Nimba at 1380 m (4540 ft). Climate: Liberia has a tropical climate with a wet season in the summer and a dry season in winter.
ECONOMY
Over 70% of the labor force is involved in agriculture, producing cassava and rice as subsistence crops and rubber, coffee and cocoa for export. Liberia is a major exporter of iron ore. The economy has been disrupted by a civil war since 1990. Currency: Liberian dollar (US currency is also in circulation).
HISTORY
Founded by the American Colonization Society in 182122 as a settlement for freed slaves, Liberia was declared a republic in 1847. Black American settlers dominated the local Africans and extended their control inland. From 1878 to 1980 power was held by presidents from the True Whig Party, including William Tubman (President 194471). Samuel Doe, the first Liberian of local ancestry to rule, took power in a military coup (1980), but was overthrown in a civil war (1990). Despite the presence of an ECOWAS peace-keeping force civil war continued until 1994 when all seven warring factions agreed to a ceasefire.
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11-1U
LIBYA
LIBYA
Official name: Daulat Libiya al-Arabiya al-Ishtrakiya al-Jumhuriya (The Great Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)
Member of: UN, Arab League, OPEC
Area: 1757000 km2 (678380 sq mi)
Population: 4573000 (1993 est)
Capital: Tripoli (Tarabulus) 591000 (1988 est). In 1988 government functions were decentralized to Sirte (Surt) and Al Jofrah as well as Tripoli and Benghazi.
Other major cities: Benghazi (Banghazi) 446000, Misurata (Misratah) 122000 (1988 est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religion: Sunni Islam (over 97%)
GOVERNMENT
Over 1110 delegates from directly elected local Basic Peoples Congresses, trade unions, popular committees and professional organizations meet as the Great Peoples Congress, which chooses a Revolutionary Leader head of state and the General Peoples Committee (which is equivalent to a Council of Ministers). The appointed General Secretariat assists the Congress. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
The Sahara Desert covers most of Libya. In the northwest (Tripolitania) coastal oases and a low plain support farming. In the northeast (Cyrenaica) a coastal plain and mountains support Mediterranean vegetation. The Tibesti Mountains rise to Bette (2286 m / 7500 ft). Climate: Libya is hot and dry, with lower temperatures and higher rainfall near the coast.
ECONOMY
Libya is one of the worlds largest producers of petroleum. Liquefied gas is also exported. Coastal oases produce wheat, barley, nuts, dates and grapes. Libya is overdependent upon a single commodity and the imposition of UN sanctions on Libya has damaged the economy. Currency: Libyan dinar.
HISTORY
In the 7th century bc Phoenicians settled Tripolitania which became part of the Carthaginian Empire (see p. 376) and the Greeks founded cities in Cyrenaica. From the 1st century bc coastal Libya came under Roman rule. By the 5th century ad Libya then part of the Byzantine Empire was largely Christian. Arab armies brought Islam to Libya in the 7th century. Tripolitania came under Berber rule, and Cyrenaica became Egyptian, while the south Fezzan remained independent. In the 16th century, the whole of Libya was united under Ottoman (Turkish) rule, although autonomous local dynasties flourished.
In 1911 the Italians took Libya. The British Eighth Army defeated the Italians at El Alamein in the Libyan Desert (1942), and after World War II the country was divided between British and French administrations. Libya became independent in 1951 under King Idris, formerly Amir of Cyrenaica. Although oil revenues made Libya prosperous, the pro-Western monarchy became increasingly unpopular. In 1969 junior army officers led by Moamar al Gaddafi (1942 ) took power. Gaddafi nationalized the oil industry, but his various attempts to federate with other Arab countries proved abortive. In the 1970s he began a cultural revolution, dismantled formal government, collectivized economic activity, limited personal wealth and suppressed opposition. Libyas alleged support of terrorism provoked US air raids on Tripoli and Benghazi in 1986, and UN sanctions in 1992.
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LIECHTEN
LIECHTENSTEIN
Official name: F
rstentum Liechtenstein (The Principality of Liechtenstein)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 160 km2 (62 sq mi)
Population: 30100 (1993 est)
Capital: Vaduz 4900 (1991 est)
Other major town: Schaan 5000 (1991 est)
Language: German (official)
Religions: Roman Catholic (87%), Lutheran (8%)
GOVERNMENT
The country is a monarchy ruled by a Prince. The 25-member Landstag is elected under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Landstag elects a 5-member Cabinet, including a Prime Minister.
GEOGRAPHY
The Alps in the east of the principality rise to the Grauspitze at 2599 m (8326 ft). The west comprises the floodplain of the River Rhine. Climate: The country has a mild Alpine climate.
ECONOMY
Liechtenstein has one of the highest standards of living in the world. Tourism, banking and manufacturing (precision goods) are all important. Currency: Liechtenstein uses Swiss currency.
HISTORY
In 1719 the counties of Schellenberg and Vaduz were united to form a principality for the Austrian Princes of Liechtenstein. Separated from Germany by Austrian territory, Liechtenstein was the only German principality not to join the German Empire in 1871. Since 1924 the country has enjoyed a customs and monetary union with Switzerland, although since 1989 the principality has taken a more active role internationally, for instance joining the UN.
Religions: Roman Catholic (80%), Lutheran and Russian Orthodox minorities
GOVERNMENT
The 141-member Parliament (Seimas) is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The President, who is directly elected for five years, chooses the Prime Minister, who, in turn, appoints a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Lithuania comprises a low-lying plain dotted with lakes and crossed by ridges of glacial moraine that rise to 294 m (964 ft) in the southeast. A 100 km (60 mi) sandspit separates a large lagoon from the Baltic Sea. Climate: Lithuania has a transitional climate between the milder temperate areas to the west and the more extreme continental areas to the east.
ECONOMY
About 15% of the labor force is engaged in farming, mainly cattle rearing and dairying. Much of Lithuania is heavily forested. The engineering, timber, cement and food-processing industries are important, but Lithuania faces an uncertain future as it dismantles state control and breaks away from the former Soviet trade system. About one third of the economy had been privatized by 1994. An agreement of association with the EU/EC was negotiated in 1994-95. Currency: Litas.
HISTORY
The Lithuanians were first united c. 1250. Their grand princes greatly enlarged the country, annexing what is now Belarus and most of the Ukraine. The marriage of grand prince Jogaila to the queen of Poland (1386) united the crowns of the two countries, although Lithuania retained autonomy until 1569. Lithuania was annexed by Russia in 1795. Lithuanian national consciousness increased throughout the 19th century and Lithuanians rose with the Poles against Russian rule in 183031 and 1863. German forces invaded in 1915 and encouraged the establishment of a Lithuanian state. After World War I, the new republic faced invasions by the Red Army from the east and the Polish army from the west (191920). Internationally recognized boundaries were not established until 1923. The dictatorship of Augustinas Voldemaras (192629) was followed by that of Antonas Smetona (192940).
The Non-Aggression Pact (1939) between Hitler and Stalin assigned Lithuania to the USSR, which invaded and annexed the republic (1940). Lithuania was occupied by Nazi Germany (194144). When Soviet rule was reimposed (1945), large-scale Russian settlement replaced over 250000 Lithuanians who had been killed or deported to Siberia. In 1988, reforms in the USSR allowed Lithuanian nationalists to operate openly. Nationalists won a majority in the republics parliament, but their declaration of independence (1990) brought a crackdown by Soviet forces in Lithuania. Following the failed coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (August 1991), the USSR recognized Lithuanias independence.
Other major towns: Esch-sur-Alzette 24000, Differdange 16000 (1991 census)
Languages: Letzeburgish (national; 72% as a first language); French (6% as a first language, but universally understood) and German (10% as a first language) both official; Portuguese (9% as a first language)
Religion: Roman Catholic (95%)
GOVERNMENT
Luxembourg is a monarchy with a Grand Duke or Duchess as sovereign. The 60-member Chamber of Deputies is elected under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for five years. A Council of Ministers and a Premier commanding a majority in the Chamber are appointed by the sovereign.
GEOGRAPHY
The Oesling is a wooded plateau rising to 550 m (1833 ft) in the north. The Gutland in the south is a lowland region of valleys and ridges. Climate: Luxembourg has relatively cool summers and mild winters.
ECONOMY
The iron and steel industry originally based on local ore is important. Luxembourg has become a major banking center. The north grows potatoes and fodder crops; the south produces wheat and fruit, including grapes. Currency: Luxembourgeois franc.
HISTORY
Luxembourg has changed hands many times through inheritance and invasion. In 1443, Luxembourg passed to the dukes of Burgundy, and was inherited by the Spanish Habsburgs in 155556. In 1713 the country came under Austrian rule, but was annexed by France during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1815 Luxembourg became a Grand Duchy with the Dutch king as sovereign, but in 1890 it was inherited by a junior branch of the House of Orange. In 1831 the western (French-speaking) part of the state became part of Belgium. Occupied by the Germans during both World Wars, Luxembourg concluded an economic union with Belgium in 1922 and has enthusiastically supported European unity. Luxembourg City is one of EU/ECs three centers of administration.
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MACEDONI
MACEDONIA
Official names: (internal) Republika Makedonija (Republic of Macedonia) and (international) The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Religions: Macedonian Orthodox (over 60%), Sunni Islam (nearly 25%)
GOVERNMENT
The 120-member Assembly is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. A President who appoints a Cabinet and a Prime Minister is elected by the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
Macedonia is a plateau about 760 m (2500 ft) high, bordered by mountains including the Sar range, which rises to Korab at 2753 m (9032 ft). The central Vardar valley is the only major lowland. Climate: The climate tends towards continental with cold, snowy winters and warm summers.
ECONOMY
Macedonia was one of the least developed regions of Yugoslavia. The republic is largely agricultural, raising sheep and cattle and growing cereals and tobacco. Steel, chemical and textile industries rely, in part, upon local resources that include iron ore, lead and zinc. The economy has been severely damaged by intermittent Greek trade blockades and the disruption of trade with Serbia (owing to international sanctions against that country). Currency: Macedonian denar.
HISTORY
The ancient kingdom of Macedon (see p. 372) which became a major power under Philip II and his son Alexander III (the Great) included most of the present republic of Macedonia but was centered on northern Greece. After a period of Roman rule, the region was invaded by the Goths and Avars, before the present state became part of the Bulgarian empire and the Slavic world in the 9th century. A Macedonian state flourished briefly at the end of the 10th century but was conquered by the Byzantine Empire in 1018. From about 1280 Macedonia came under Serbian rule. The entire region was conquered by the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire by the 1370s. Under Ottoman rule the areas ethnic composition became more complicated as Albanians moved east and Turks settled in the Vardar valley. When Ottoman power declined in the 19th century, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece all claimed the region on an ethnic, religious or historical basis.
Macedonia remained under Turkish rule until the First Balkan War (1912), after which those areas with a Greek-speaking majority were assigned to Greece and the remainder was partitioned between Bulgaria and Serbia, the latter gaining the area comprising the present republic. Bulgaria continued to claim all Macedonia and occupied the region during World War I. In 1918 Serbian Macedonia was incorporated within the new kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. When Yugoslavia was reorganized on Soviet lines by Marshal Tito in 1945 a separate Macedonian republic was formed within the Communist federation. After Titos death (1980), the Yugoslav experiment faltered and local nationalist movements arose. Following the secession of Slovenia and Croatia and the outbreak of the Yugoslav civil war (1991), Macedonia declared its own sovereignty. Despite initial opposition from Greece, which denied the existence of a Macedonian people, the republic gained international recognition in 1992. However, in 1994 Greece imposed a total trade embargo on Macedonia (with the exception of food imports and medical supplies). This move, which devastated the Macedonian economy, was condemned by all of Greeces EU partners. The nationalist aspirations of some of Macedonias Albanian minority have increased tension.
Other major cities: Toamasina 145000, Fianarantsoa 125000 (1990 est)
Languages: Malagasy and French (both official)
Religions: animist (47%), Roman Catholic (28%), Protestant Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (22%)
GOVERNMENT
A President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet is elected by universal adult suffrage for seven years. A 138-member National Assembly (lower house) is directly elected for four years. The Senate (upper house) comprises delegates appointed by the President and chosen by an electoral college for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
Massifs form a spine running from north to south through the island, rising to Tsaratanana peak at 2885 m (9465 ft). To the east is a narrow coastal plain; to the west are fertile plains. Climate: The climate is tropical, although the highlands are cooler. The north receives monsoon rains, but the south is dry.
ECONOMY
Over three quarters of the labor force are involved in agriculture. The main crops are coffee and vanilla for export, and rice and cassava for domestic consumption. The island is an important producer of chromite. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
The first inhabitants were Polynesians from Indonesia in the early centuries ad, who were later joined by mainland Africans and by Arabs. In the early 19th century, the island was united by the Merina kingdom. Merina sovereigns attempted to modernize Madagascar, but the island was annexed by France in 1896, although resistance continued until 1904. Strong nationalist feeling found expression in a major rising (194748) that was suppressed with heavy loss of life. Independence was finally achieved in 1960. Since a military coup in 1972, Madagascar has had left-wing governments. Political and economic reforms began in 1990 and multi-party elections in 1993 resulted in a change of power.
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MALAWI
MALAWI
Official name: The Republic of Malawi
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAU
Area: 118484 km2 (45747 sq mi)
Population: 10580000 (1993 est)
Capital: Lilongwe 234000 (1987 census)
Other major cities: Blantyre 331000, Mzuzu 44000 (1987 census)
Languages: English and Chichewa (over 50%) both official
Religions: various Protestant Churches (34%; mainly Presbyterian and Anglican), Roman Catholic (28%), animist (20%), Sunni Islam (16%)
GOVERNMENT
An executive President who appoints a Cabinet and the 177-member National Assembly are elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Plateau cover the north and center. The Rift Valley contains Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) and the Shire Valley. The Shire Highlands on the Mozambique border rise to Mount Sapitawa at 3002 m (9849 ft). Climate: Malawi has an equatorial climate with heavy rainfall from November to April.
ECONOMY
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing most of Malawis exports. Tobacco, tea and sugar cane are the main crops. Malawi is one of the worlds poorest nations. Currency: Kwacha.
HISTORY
David Livingstone and other British missionaries became active in the area from the 1860s. A British protectorate, later called Nyasaland, was declared in 1891. In 1915 the Rev. John Chilembwe led a violent rising in the fertile south, where Africans had lost much land to white settlers. Federation with the white-dominated Central African Federation (195363) was resented. The nationalist leader later President Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda (c. 1902 ) helped to break the Federation. From independence as Malawi in 1964 until 1994, Banda provided strong rule and despite criticism maintained close relations with South Africa. The one-party state, established in 1966, was abandoned after pressure for political reforms grew in 199293. Banda was defeated in multi-party elections in 1994.
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MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
Official name: Persekutuan Tanah Melaysiu (The Federation of Malaysia)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, ASEAN, Apec
Area: 330442 km2 (127584 sq mi)
Population: 19077000 (1993 est)
Capital: Kuala Lumpur 1233000 (including suburbs; 1990 census)
Other major cities: Ipoh 390000, George Town 325000, Johor Baharu 325000 (1990 est)
Languages: Bahasa Malaysia (Malay; official; 58%), English, Chinese (32%), Tamil
Religions: Sunni Islam (official; over 55%), Buddhist, Daoist and various Christian minorities
GOVERNMENT
The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (the King of Malaysia) holds office for five years. He is elected from their own number by the hereditary sultans who reign in nine of the 13 states. The 70-member Senate (upper house) comprises 40 members appointed by the King and two members elected by each of the state and territorial assemblies for a three-year term. The 192-member House of Representatives is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The King appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet commanding a majority in the House. The states have their own governments.
GEOGRAPHY
Western (Peninsular) Malaysia consists of mountain ranges including the Trengganu and Cameron Highlands running north to south and bordered by densely populated coastal lowlands. Tropical rainforest covers the hills and mountains of Eastern Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak, the northern part of the island of Borneo). The highest point is Kinabalu in Sabah (4101 m / 13 455 ft). Climate: Malaysia has a tropical climate with heavy rainfall (up to 2500 mm / 100 in in the west). There is more seasonal variation in precipitation than temperature, with the northeast monsoon (from October to February) and the southwest monsoon (from May to September) bringing increased rainfall, particularly to Peninsular Malaysia.
ECONOMY
Rubber, petroleum and tin are the traditional mainstays of the Malaysian economy, but all three suffered drops in price on the world market in the 1980s. Pepper (mainly from Sarawak), cocoa and timber are also important. One third of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Large numbers of Malays grow rice as a subsistence crop. Manufacturing industry is now the largest exporter; major industries include rubber, tin, timber, textiles, machinery and cement. The government has greatly encouraged industrialization, investment and a more active role for the ethnic Malay population in industry, which with commerce and finance has been largely the preserve of Chinese Malaysians. Malaysia has experienced high economic growth rates since the early 1980s. The tourist industry is being promoted. Currency: Ringgit.
HISTORY
Malaysias ethnic diversity reflects its complex history and the lure of its natural wealth and prime trading position. Most of the area was part of the Buddhist Sumatran kingdom of Sri Vayaja from the 9th century to the 14th century, when it fell to the Hindu Javanese. From the 15th century, Islam came to the region and the spice trade attracted Europeans. The trading post of Malacca was taken by the Portuguese in 1511 and then by the Dutch in 1641. The British established themselves on the island of Penang (1786), founded Singapore (1819), and in 1867 established an administration for the Straits Settlements Malacca, Penang and Singapore. Ignoring Thai claims to overlordship in the peninsula, the British took over the small sultanates as protected states. The British suppressed piracy, developed tin mining with Chinese labor and rubber plantations with Indian workers. Sarawak became a separate state under Sir James Brooke the White Raja and his family from 1841, and was ceded to the British Crown in 1946. Sabah became British as British North Borneo in 1881.
The Japanese occupied the whole of Malaysia during World War II. A Federation of Malaya the peninsula was established in 1948, but was threatened by Communist insurgency until 1960. Malaya became independent in 1957 with a constitution protecting the interests of the Malays, who were fearful of the energy and acumen of the Chinese. Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore joined the Federation renamed Malaysia in 1963. Singapore left in 1965, but the unity of the Federation was maintained, with British armed support, in the face of an Indonesian confrontation in Borneo (196566). Tension between Chinese and Malays led to riots and the suspension of parliamentary government (196971), but scarcely hindered the rapid development of a resource-rich economy. During the 1980s, the growth of Islamic fundamentalism led to a defensive re-assertion of Islamic values and practices among the Muslim Malay ruling elite.
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MALDIVES
THE MALDIVES
Official name: Dhivehi Jumhuriya (Republic of Maldives)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth
Area: 298 km2 (115 sq mi)
Population: 237000 (1993 est)
Capital: Mal
55000 (1990 census)
Language: Dhivehi (Maldivian; official)
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; almost 100%)
GOVERNMENT
The Majilis (Assembly) consists of eight members appointed by the President, and 40 elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The President who is directly elected for five years appoints a Cabinet. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
The country is a chain of over 1190 small low-lying coral islands, of which 203 are inhabited. Climate: The climate is tropical with heavy rainfall brought by the monsoon between May and August.
ECONOMY
The tourist industry has displaced fishing as the mainstay of the economy. However, 35% of Maldivians subsist on fish and coconuts. The greatest problem facing the low-lying Maldives is flooding from tropical monsoons and tidal waves. Currency: Rufiyaa.
HISTORY
Settled from the south Asian mainland, the Maldives accepted Islam in the 12th century. Western contacts began with the Portuguese in the 16th century. From 1887 until independence in 1965 the Maldives were a British protectorate, but the ad-Din sultanate, established in the 14th century, was only abolished in 1968.
A President is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years and the 129-member National Assembly is directly elected for three years. The President appoints a Premier and a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
The low-lying plains of Mali rise to 1155 m (3789 ft) in the Adrar des Iforas range in the northeast. The south is savannah; the Sahara Desert is in the north. Principal river: Niger 4200 km (2600 mi). Climate: Mali is hot and largely dry, although the south has a wet season from June to October.
ECONOMY
Drought in the 1970s and 1980s devastated Malis livestock herds. Only one fifth of Mali can be cultivated, producing mainly rice, millet and sorghum for domestic use, and cotton for export. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Mali is named after an empire in the area (12th14th centuries). Conquered by France (188095), it became the French Sudan. Mali became independent in 1960. After an army coup in 1968, military governments ruled Mali until multi-party politics were restored in 1992.
Official names: Repubblika TaMalta and Republic of Malta
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OSCE
Area: 316 km2 (122 sq mi)
Population: 363000 (1993 est)
Capital: Valletta 205000 (city 9200; 1992 est)
Languages: Maltese and English both official
Religion: Roman Catholic (official; 98%)
GOVERNMENT
The 65-member House of Representatives is elected by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation for five years. The President who is elected for five years by the House appoints a Premier and a Cabinet who command a majority in the House.
GEOGRAPHY
The islands of Malta, Gozo and Comino consist of low limestone plateau with little surface water. Climate: The climate is Mediterranean with hot dry summers, and cooler wetter winters.
ECONOMY
The main industries are footwear and clothing, food processing and ship repairing. Tourism is the principal foreign-currency earner. Malta is virtually self-sufficient in agricultural products. Currency: Maltese Lira.
HISTORY
Malta was ruled, in turn, by Rome (218 bcad 394), the Byzantine Empire (until 870), the Arabs (until 1091) and Sicily (until 1530). From 1530 to 1798, Malta was in the hands of the Knights of St John (see p. 399), who repelled a Turkish siege in 1565. The French held Malta from 1798 to 1800, provoking the Maltese to request British protection (1802). As a British colony (from 1814), Malta became a vital naval base, and the island received the George Cross for its valor in World War II. Malta gained independence in 1964. Maltese political life has polarized between the National Party and the Maltese Labor Party. Malta now has associate membership of the EU/EC.
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MARSHALL
MARSHALL ISLANDS
Official name: The Republic of the Marshall Islands
Member of: UN
Area: 181 km2 (70 sq mi)
Population: 52000 (1993 est)
Capital: Dalap-Uliga-Darrit (on Majuro) 14600 (1990 census)
Languages: Marshallese and English (both official)
Religions: various Protestant Churches (over 90%), Roman Catholic minority
GOVERNMENT
The 33-member Nitijela (Parliament) is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The members elect a President from their own number. The traditional 12-member Council of Chiefs has advisory and consultative powers only.
GEOGRAPHY
The Marshall Islands comprise over 1150 small coral atolls and islands below 6 m (20 ft) high. Climate: The tropical climate is characterized by heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
With practically no resources, the islands depend on subsistence farming, tourism and US grants. Currency: The Marshall Islands use US currency.
HISTORY
The earliest Micronesian settlements in the Marshall Islands date from c. 2000 bc. The Spanish navigator Saavedra was the first European visitor in 1529. The islands were under Spanish (187585), German (18851914), and Japanese (191445) administration before becoming part of the US Pacific Islands Trust Territory. In 1986, US administration was terminated, but the USA retains responsibility for the islands defense. The islands independence was recognized when the UN terminated the trusteeship in 1990.
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MAURITAN
MAURITANIA
Official name: Jumhuriyat Muritaniya al-Islamiya (Islamic Republic of Mauritania)
Member of: UN, OAU, Arab League
Area: 1030700 km2 (397950 sq mi)
Population: 2170000 (1993 est)
Capital: Nouakchott 393000 (1988 census)
Languages: Arabic (official; 81%), French
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; 99%)
GOVERNMENT
A President is elected by universal adult suffrage for six years and a 79-member National Assembly is elected for five years. A 56-member Senate (upper house) is elected for six years by municipal leaders. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Isolated peaks including Kediet Ijill (915 m / 3050 ft) rise above the plateau of the Sahara Desert that cover most of Mauritania. Principal river: S
gal 1641 km (1020 mi). Climate: The climate is hot and dry, with adequate rainfall only in the south.
ECONOMY
Persistent drought has devastated the nomads herds of cattle and sheep. Fish from the Atlantic and iron ore are virtually the only exports. Currency: Ouguiya.
HISTORY
The French arrived on the coast in the 17th century, but did not annex the Arab emirates inland until 1903. Mauritania became independent in 1960. When Spain withdrew from the Western Sahara (1976), Morocco and Mauritania divided the territory between them, but Mauritania could not defeat the Polisario guerrillas fighting for Sahrawi independence and gave up its claim (1979). Tension between the dominant Arab north and Black African south led to violence in 1989. Military rulers held power from 1979. In 1992 free elections were held, but the opposition boycotted the poll.
Languages: English (official), Creole (French; nearly 30%), Hindi (over 20%), Bhojpuri
Religions: Hindu (51%), Roman Catholic (25%), Sunni Islam (17%), with Protestant minorities
GOVERNMENT
Elections are held by universal adult suffrage every five years for 62 members of the Assembly; up to 8 additional members may be appointed. The President who is elected by the Assembly appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Assembly. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet responsible to the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
The central plateau of Mauritius is surrounded by mountains, including Piton de la Riviere Noire (826 m / 2711 ft). Other islands in the group include Rodrigues and the Agalega Islands. Climate: The climate is subtropical, although it can be very hot from December to April. Rainfall is high in the uplands.
ECONOMY
Tourism (the major foreign-currency earner) and the export of sugar cane dominate the economy. Diversification is being encouraged, and the clothing industry is of increasing importance. Currency: Mauritius rupee.
HISTORY
Known to the Arabs and the Portuguese, the island was settled by the Dutch in 1638. Mauritius was French from 1715 until 1814, when it became British. Black slaves were imported, followed in the 19th century by Indian laborers whose descendants are the majority community. Independence was gained in 1968 and a republic was declared in 1992.
?CbC?f?g?f?_?f?g?f?CbC>CcC>CbC?g?B?f?g>g>C?g>C>g?C?f?g?C>g?BcC?f?f?C>g?g?C>g?g>;?CbC?_?^?BcB?;bC?_>CbC>_>C?g>?g>g?^?f?B?g;>;cCcB?_>Cb;>g?BcC>g?g>;c:cCb;bC?f?g?f?CcB;cB?g G
Official name: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States)
Member of: UN, OAS, NAFTA, ALADI, OECD, Apec
Area: 1958201 km2 (756066 sq mi)
Population: 89960000 (1993 est)
Capital: Mexico City 15050000 (city 8237000; Nezahualc
yotl 1260000; 1990 census)
Other major cities: Guadalajara 1650000, Monterrey 1069000, Puebla 1055000, Le
n 852000 (all including suburbs; 1990 census)
Languages: Spanish (92%; official), various Indian languages
Religion: Roman Catholic (91%)
GOVERNMENT
The 64-member Senate and the President who may serve only once are elected by universal adult suffrage for six years. The 500-member Chamber of Deputies is directly elected for three years 200 of the members are elected under a system of proportional representation; the remaining 300 represent single-member constituencies. The President appoints a Cabinet. Each of the 31 states has its own Chamber of Deputies.
GEOGRAPHY
Between the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains in the east and the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west is a large high central plateau. Volcanoes include Volc
n Citlaltepetl (Pico de Orizaba) at 5610 m (18 405 ft), the countrys highest point. The coastal plains are generally narrow in the west, but wider in the east. The Yucat
n Peninsula in the southeast is a broad limestone lowland; Baja California in the northwest is a long narrow mountainous peninsula. Principal river: Rio Bravo de Norte (Rio Grande) 3033 km (1885 mi). Climate: There is considerable climatic variation, in part reflecting the complexity of the relief. In general, the south and the coastal lowlands are tropical; the central plateau and the mountains are cooler and drier.
ECONOMY
Over 20% of the labor force is involved in agriculture and many Mexicans are still subsistence farmers growing maize, wheat, kidney beans and rice. Coffee, cotton, fruit and vegetables are major export crops. Mexico is the worlds leading producer of silver. The exploitation of large reserves of natural gas and petroleum enabled Mexicos spectacular economic development since the 1970s, but social and economic reforms did not keep up with this growth. An expanding industrial base includes important petrochemical, textile, motor-vehicle and food-processing industries. In the early 1990s low labor costs and the new NAFTA trade agreement encouraged major US companies to set up plant in Mexico. However, economic problems remain, and high unemployment has stimulated immigration often illegal to the US. A major crisis of confidence in 1995 sent the peso into steep decline and Mexico required a US-led rescue package. Currency: Peso.
HISTORY
When the Spanish arrived in Mexico in 1519, the Maya civilization in Yucat
n was in decline, but Aztec power, centered on Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), was flourishing (see pp. 39091). In 151921, the mighty Aztec empire was overthrown by a small band of Spanish invaders under Cortez (see pp. 41011). For the next 300 years Mexico was under Spanish rule, its economy largely based on silver and gold mining and the produce of large estates owned by Spanish grandees (see p. 410). The first revolt against Spanish rule broke out in 1810, but Mexican independence was not gained until 1821 after a guerrilla war led by Vicente Guerrero. Initially an empire, Mexico became a republic in 1823, but conflict between federalists and centralists erupted, developing into civil war.
In 1836 Texas rebelled against Mexico, declaring independence. When the USA annexed Texas in 1845, war broke out, resulting in the loss of half Mexicos territory Texas, New Mexico and California. A period of reform began in 1857, with a new liberal constitution. A civil war (185861) between reformists and conservatives was won by the reformists under Benito Ju
rez (180672), but the economy was shattered. After Mexico failed to repay debts, Spain, Britain and France invaded in 1863. Although Spain and Britain soon withdrew, France remained, appointing Archduke Maximilian of Austria (183267) as Emperor (1864). Under US pressure and Mexican resistance, the French withdrew in 1867. Maximilian remained in Mexico City and was captured and executed. Ju
rez re-established the republic.
The authoritarian rule of General Porfirio D
az (President 187680 and 18881910) brought peace, but wealth was concentrated into a few hands. Revolution against the power of the landowners erupted in 1910. The reformist policies of President Francisco Madero (18731913) were supported by the outlaw Pancho Villa (18771923), but revolutionary violence continued, and in 191617 a US expeditionary force was sent against Villa. From 1924 the revolution became anticlerical and the Church was persecuted. Order was restored when the Institutional Revolutionary Party came to power in 1929. In the 1930s the large estates were divided and much of the economy was nationalized. Political opposition was tolerated, although the ruling party is virtually guaranteed perpetual power.# A more liberal economic and political climate emerged in the 1990s, but Mexicos coming of age marked by membership of NAFTA and OECD has been marred by political assassinations (1994), a peasant uprising in the state of Chiapas (since 1994) and a major economic crisis (1995).
Religions: various Protestant Churches (majority), Roman Catholic (minority)
GOVERNMENT
The President (who serves for four years) and the 14-member National Congress are elected by universal adult suffrage. Congress comprises one senator elected from each of the four states for four years, and ten senators elected by constituencies for two years.
GEOGRAPHY
The Micronesian islands comprise over 600 islands in two main groups. The majority of the islands are low coral atolls, but Kosrae and Pohnpei are mountainous. Climate: The climate is tropical with heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
Apart from phosphate, the islands have practically no resources and depend upon subsistence agriculture, fishing and US grants. Currency: Micronesia uses US currency.
HISTORY
The islands were first settled c. 3000 bc. The first European visitors were Spanish navigators who named the islands the Carolines. The islands were under Spanish (187499), German (18991914), and Japanese (191445) administration before becoming part of the US Pacific Trust Territory. In 1986, US administration was terminated, although the USA retains responsibility for the islands defense. The Federated States independence was recognized when the UN terminated the trusteeship in 1990.
Religion: Orthodox majority both Romanian and Russian
GOVERNMENT
A President and a 104-member Parliament are elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Premier and a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Moldova comprises a hilly plain between the River Prut and the Dnestr valley. Climate: The country experiences a mild, slightly continental climate.
ECONOMY
Collective farms grow fruit (particularly grapes for wine), vegetables, wheat, maize and tobacco. Little progress has been made to privatize agriculture or industry, which includes food processing and engineering. The collapse of the Soviet trade system and the war in Trans-Dnestr have damaged the economy. Currency: Moldovan leu.
HISTORY
Known as Bessarabia, the area was ruled by Kievan Rus (10th12th centuries) and the Tatars (13th14th centuries) before becoming part of the Romanian principality of Moldavia within the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. Bessarabia was intermittently occupied by Russia in the 18th century before being ceded to the Russians in 1812. Briefly restored to Moldavia (185678), Bessarabia remained Russian until World War I. An autonomous Bessarabian republic was proclaimed in 1917, but was suppressed by a Russian Bolshevik invasion (1918). The Russians were removed by Romanian forces and Bessarabia became part of the kingdom of Romania (1918). When Romania entered World War II as a German ally, the USSR reoccupied Bessarabia, which was reorganized as the Moldavian Soviet Republic in 1944. Following the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (1991), Moldavia declared independence. As Moldova, the republic received international recognition when the Soviet Union was dissolved. Civil war broke out in 1992 when Russian and Ukrainian minorities fearing an eventual reunion of Moldova with Romania proclaimed the breakaway republic of Trans-Dnestr. The intervention of CIS (mainly Russian) forces brought an uneasy peace, but Moldovan authorities no longer control Trans-Dnestr. In a 1994 referendum Moldova rejected union with Romania.
Monaco is a constitutional monarchy. Legislative power is jointly held by the Prince and the 18-member National Council, which is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. Executive power is held by the Prince, who appoints a four-member Council of Government and a French civil servant the Minister of State to head it.
GEOGRAPHY
Monaco comprises a rocky peninsula and a narrow stretch of coast. Since 1958 Monacos area has increased by 20% through reclamation of land from the sea. Climate: Monaco has a Mediterranean climate.
ECONOMY
Monaco depends upon real estate, banking, insurance, light industry and tourism. Currency: Monaco uses French currency.
HISTORY
The Grimaldi family has ruled Monaco since 1297. Monaco was annexed by France in 1793 but restored in 1814, under the protection of the king of Sardinia. The greater part of the principality was lost and eventually annexed by France in 1848. Since 1861 Monaco has been under French protection. Prince Rainier III granted a liberal constitution in 1962.# By special agreement, Monaco is included within the EU/EC.
Religion: Religion was suppressed from 1924 to 1990. Buddhism the traditional religion is now being encouraged.
GOVERNMENT
The 76-member Great Hural and a President are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Mongolia comprises mountains in the north, a series of basins in the center, and the Gobi Desert and Altai Mountains rising to M
nh Hayrhan Uul (4362 m /
14 311 ft) in the south. Climate: Mongolia has a dry climate with generally mild summers and severely cold winters.
ECONOMY
Mongolia depends on collectivized animal herding (cattle, sheep, goats and camels). Cereals (including fodder crops) are grown on a large scale on state farms. The industrial sector is dominated by food processing, hides and wool. Copper is a major export. The former USSR was Mongolias principal trading partner and Soviet grants represented one third of Mongolias GNP. The end of aid from Russia and the disruption of trade since 1991 have led to severe economic difficulties. Currency: Tugrik.
HISTORY
Mongolia was the home of the Huns who ravaged both the Chinese and Roman empires (1st5th centuries ad) and of the strong Uigur state in the 8th and 9th centuries. In the 13th century the Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan (Perfect Warrior) created an immense but short-lived Asian empire. In the 17th century, Mongolia was annexed by China, but Outer Mongolia the north retained autonomy as a Buddhist monarchy. In 1921, Outer Mongolia broke away from China with Soviet assistance and in 1924 the Mongolian Peoples Republic was established. Pro-democracy demonstrations led to a liberalization of the regime in 1990. The Communists won the first multi-party elections.
Official name: Al-Mamlaka al-Maghribiya (The Kingdom of Morocco)
Member of: UN, Arab League
Area: 458730 km2 (177115 sq mi), excluding the disputed Western Sahara (or 710850 km2 (274461 sq mi) with the Western Sahara)
Population: 26494000 (1993 est), excluding Western Sahara, which had 195000 inhabitants in 1993.
Capital: Rabat 1545000 (includes Sal
; 1990 est)
Other major cities: Casablanca (Dar el Beida) 3311000 (city 1069000), Marrakech 745000, Mekn
s 660000, Oujda 635000, K
nitra 610000, Fez (F
s) 605000 (1992 est)
Languages: Arabic (official; 75% as a first language but universally understood), Berber (about 25%), French
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; 98%)
GOVERNMENT
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The 333-member Chamber of Representatives consists of 222 members elected by universal adult suffrage for six years and 111 members chosen by an electoral college representing municipal authorities and professional bodies. The King appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Over one third of Morocco is mountainous. The principal uplands are the Grand, Middle and Anti Atlas Mountains in the west and north rising to Jebel Toubkal (4165 m / 13 665 ft) and a plateau in the east. Much of Morocco and all of the Western Sahara is desert. Climate: The north has a Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers and warm wetter winters. The south and much of the interior have semiarid and tropical desert climates.
ECONOMY
Over 40% of the labor force is involved in farming, producing mainly citrus fruits, grapes (for wine) and vegetables for export, and wheat and barley for local consumption. Morocco is the worlds leading exporter of phosphates. Other resources include iron ore, lead and zinc. Many important industries and services are in state ownership. Tourism is growing. Currency: Dirham.
HISTORY
The region became a Roman province in ad 46. In the 7th century Morocco became Islamic. In the 11th and 12th centuries the Almoravid (Berber) empire which included Muslim Spain was based in Marrakech. Morocco was ruled by the Almohad dynasty, who controlled a North African empire from 1147 until 1269. The Sharifian dynasty descended from the Prophet Muhammad rose to power in the 16th and 17th centuries, and still retains the throne. In the 19th century Spain confirmed control of several long-claimed coastal settlements. In the Moroccan Crises (190506 and 1911), French interests in Morocco were disputed by Germany. Under the Treaty of Fez in 1912 France established a protectorate over Morocco, although the Spanish enclaves remained. The 1925 Rif rebellion stirred nationalist feelings, but independence was not gained until 1956. King Hassan II (reigned 1961 ) has survived left-wing challenges through strong rule and vigorous nationalism as in his 1975 Green March of unarmed peasants into the then-Spanish (Western) Sahara. Morocco still holds Western Sahara despite international pressure and the activities of the Algerian-backed Polisario guerrillas fighting for the territorys independence. A ceasefire was agreed in 1991, but a scheduled UN-sponsored referendum on Western Sahara has yet to be held.
Religions: animist (60%), Roman Catholic (15%), Sunni Islam (15%)
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for elections by universal adult suffrage for a 250-member Assembly and a President for five years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The Zambezi River separates high plateau in northern Mozambique from lowlands in the south. Mount Bingo rises to 2436 m / 7992 ft. Principal rivers: Limpopo 1770 km (1100 mi), Zambezi (Zamb
ze) 3540 km (2200 mi). Climate: Mozambique has a tropical climate, with maximum rainfall and temperatures from November to March.
ECONOMY
Over 80% of the labor force is involved in farming, mainly growing cassava and maize. Fishing is a major employer prawns and shrimps make up nearly 50% of Mozambiques exports. The economy has been devastated by civil war and drought, and famine is widespread. Mozambique is usually stated to be the poorest country in the world (in terms of GDP per head). Currency: Metical.
HISTORY
The Mozambique coast attracted Arab settlements from the 9th century ad. The Portuguese founded coastal trading posts from 1531, but only gained control of the interior at the end of the 19th century. Forced labor and minimal development fueled nationalist feelings, and in 1964 the Frelimo movement launched a guerrilla war against Portuguese rule. Independence was gained in 1975, and a Marxist-Leninist state was established. The pressures of poverty and the destabilization of the country by South Africa through support for the Renamo guerrilla movement led to renewed ties with the West. Marxism was abandoned by Frelimo in 1989. A ceasefire and a UN presence in Mozambique were agreed in 1992 and multi-party elections were held in 1994.
Official name: Myanma Naingngandaw (The Union of Myanmar). The name Burma was officially dropped in 1989, but is still in widespread use internationally and by the opposition in the country.
Member of: UN
Area: 676577 km2 (261228 sq mi)
Population: 44615000 (1991 est)
Capital: Rangoon (Yangon) 2513000 (1983 census)
Other major cities: Mandalay 533000, Moulmein 230000 (1983 census)
Religion: Buddhist (88%), various Christian Churches (5%)
GOVERNMENT
Power is held by a 19-member State Law-and-Order Restoration Council. There is constitutional provision for a 489-member Assembly elected by universal adult suffrage, a Council of Ministers and a Council of State, whose Chairman is head of state.
GEOGRAPHY
The north and west of Burma are mountainous, rising to Hkakado Razi (5881 m / 19 296 ft). In the east, is the Shan Plateau along the Thai border. Central and south Burma consists of tropical lowlands. Principal river: Irrawaddy 2090 km (1300 mi). Climate: Burma is tropical, experiencing monsoon rains up to 5000 mm (200 in) in the south from May to October.
ECONOMY
Burma is rich in agriculture, timber, and minerals, but because of poor communications, self-imposed isolation, lack of development and rebellions by a number of ethnic minorities, the country has been unable to realize its potential. Subsistence farming involves about 80% of the labor force. Currency: Kyat.
HISTORY
Burman supremacy over the Irrawaddy valley was first claimed in 1044 by King Anawratha, who adopted Buddhism from the rival Mon people. Chinese conquest (1287) allowed a reassertion of Mon power until the 16th century. After 1758 the Konbaung dynasty expanded Burman territory until British counter-
expansion led to total annexation (182685). Separated from British India in 1937, Burma became a battleground for British and Japanese forces in World War II (see p. 445). In 1948, Burma left the Commonwealth as an independent republic, keeping outside contacts to a minimum, particularly following the coup of General Ne Win in 1962. Continuing armed attempts to gain autonomy by non-Burman minorities strengthened the role of the army. The military retained power following multi-party elections in 1990 and detained leaders of the winning party (including Aung San Suu Kyi, who was awarded the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize). The government has come under strong international pressure to introduce reforms, but it has continued to exert military pressure on minorities, including the Karen and Muslims. By 1995 most of the ethnic rebellions had been either put down, contained or ended by truces.
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NAMIBIA
NAMIBIA
Official name: Republic of Namibia
Member of: UN, OAU, Commonwealth
Area: 824292 km2 (318261 sq mi)
Population: 1402000 (1993 est)
Capital: Windhoek 115000 (1988 est)
Other major city: Walvis Bay 21000 (1988 est)
Languages: English (official), Afrikaans, German, local languages
Religions: Lutheran (30%), Roman Catholic (20%), other Christian Churches (30%)
GOVERNMENT
A 72-member Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The President, who is elected by the Assembly, appoints a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The coastal Namib Desert stretches up to 160 km (100 mi) inland and contains the highest point, the Brandberg, at 2579 m (8461 ft). Beyond the Central Plateau, the Kalahari Desert occupies the eastern part of the country. Climate: Namibia has a hot dry tropical climate. Average coastal rainfall is under 100 mm (4 in).
ECONOMY
Over 30% of the labor force is involved in farming, mainly raising cattle and sheep, but Namibia is prone to drought. The economy depends upon exports of diamonds and uranium, and is closely tied to South Africa. Currency: Namibia uses South African currency.
HISTORY
A German protectorate of South West Africa excluding Walvis Bay, which had been British since 1878 was declared in 1884. Seeking land for white settlement, the Germans established their rule after great bloodshed over three quarters of the Herero people were killed in 190304. South Africa conquered the territory during World War I, and (after 1919) administered it under a League of Nations mandate. In 1966, the UN canceled the mandate, but South Africa which had refused to grant the territory independence ignored the ruling. The main nationalist movement, SWAPO, began guerrilla warfare to free Namibia, the name adopted by the UN for the state. South Africa unsuccessfully attempted to exclude SWAPOs influence. After a ceasefire agreement in 1989, UN-supervised elections were held in 1989 for a constituent assembly. Independence, under the presidency of SWAPO leader Sam Nujoma, was achieved in 1990. South Africa ceded Walvis Bay to Namibia in 1994.
Capital: no official capital; Yaren (no population figure available) is capital de facto
Languages: Nauruan (official), English
Religions: Nauruan Protestant Church, Roman Catholic
GOVERNMENT
The 18-member Parliament which is elected by universal adult suffrage for three years elects a President, who appoints a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Nauru is a low-lying coral atoll. Climate: Nauru has a tropical climate with heavy rainfall, particularly between November and February.
ECONOMY
Nauru depends almost entirely upon the export of phosphate rock, stocks of which are expected to run out after 2010. Shipping and air services and tax haven facilities are planned to provide revenue when the phosphate is exhausted. Currency: Nauru uses Australian currency.
HISTORY
Germany annexed Nauru in 1888 after a request from German settlers on Nauru for protection during unrest between rival clans. Australia captured Nauru in 1914 and administered it except for a period of Japanese occupation (194245) until independence in 1968.
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Nepal is a constitutional monarchy. The 205-member House of Representatives (lower house) is elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The House elects a Prime Minister and other Ministers. The National Council (upper house) consists of 60 appointed and indirectly elected members chosen for a six-year term.
GEOGRAPHY
In the south are densely populated subtropical lowlands. A hilly central belt is divided by fertile valleys. The Himalaya dominate the north, and include Mount Everest 8863 m / 29 078 ft on the Chinese border. Climate: The climate varies between the subtropical south and the glacial Himalayan peaks. All of Nepal experiences the monsoon.
ECONOMY
Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world. Most of the labor force is involved in subsistence farming, mainly growing rice, barley and maize. Forestry is important, but increased farming has led to deforestation. Currency: Nepalese rupee.
HISTORY
The Kathmandu Valley supported a Hindu-Buddhist culture by the 4th century ad. In 1768 the ruler of the principality of Gurkha in the west conquered the Valley, and began a phase of expansion that ended in defeat by the Chinese in Tibet (1792) and the British in India (1816). From 1846 to 1950 the Rana family held sway as hereditary chief ministers of a powerless monarchy. Their isolationist policy preserved Nepals independence at the expense of its development. A brief experiment with democracy was followed by a re-assertion of royal autocracy (1960). Violent pro-democracy demonstrations (1990) forced the king to concede a democratic constitution. Multi-party elections were held in 1991 and 1994.
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NETHERLA
THE NETHERLANDS
Official name: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (The Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, NATO, OECD, OSCE
Area: 41863 km2 (16163 sq mi)
Population: 15302000 (1993 est)
Capital: Amsterdam capital in name only 1080000 (city 702000), The Hague (s Gravenhage) the seat of government and administration 693000 (city 445000) (1992 est)
Other major cities: Rotterdam 1060000 (city 590000), Utrecht 540000 (city 233000), Eindhoven 388000 (city 1940000), Arnhem 306000 (city 133000), Heerlen-Kerkrade 269000 (Heerlen city 95000), Enschede 253000 (city 147000) (1992 est)
Language: Dutch (official)
Religions: Roman Catholic (36%), Netherlands Reformed and Calvinist (27%)
Dependencies of the Netherlands (with areas, populations and capitals):
Aruba 193 km2 (75 sq mi), 69000 (1991 est), Oranjestad
Netherlands Antilles (The Antilles of the Five) 800 km2 (309 sq mi), 191000 (1990 est), Willemstad
GOVERNMENT
The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. The 75-member First Chamber of the States-General is elected for six years term by the 12 provincial councils with one half of the members retiring every three years. The 150-member Second Chamber is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation. The monarch appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Second Chamber. The PM, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Chamber.
GEOGRAPHY
Over one quarter of the Netherlands one of the worlds most densely populated countries lies below sea level. A network of canals and canalized rivers cross the west of the country where sand dunes and man-made dykes protect low-lying areas and polders (land reclaimed from the sea). The coast has been straightened by sea walls protecting Zeeland in the southwest and enclosing a freshwater lake, the IJsselmeer, in the north. The east comprises low sandy plains, rising only to 321 m (1053 ft) at Vaalserberg, the highest point. Principal rivers: Rhine (Rijn) which divides into branches including the Lek, Waal and Oude Rijn 1320 km (820 mi). Climate: The country has a maritime temperate climate, with cool summers and mild winters.
ECONOMY
Despite having few natural resources except natural gas the country has a high standard of living. Agriculture and horticulture are highly mechanized and concentrate on dairying and glasshouse crops, particularly flowers. Food processing is a major industry, and the country is a leading exporter of cheese. Manufacturing includes chemical, machinery, petroleum refining, metallurgical and electrical engineering industries. Raw materials are imported through Rotterdam the largest port in the world which serves much of Western Europe. Banking and finance are well developed. Currency: Gulden (known in English as the guilder).
HISTORY
In medieval times a patchwork of duchies, bishoprics and cities ruled the Netherlands. In the 15th century most of the area was governed by the dukes of Burgundy (see p. 401) and in the 16th century control of the Netherlands the present kingdom, plus Belgium and Luxembourg passed to the Spanish Habsburgs (see p. 411). The Spanish attempted to suppress Dutch Protestantism, and this provoked a revolt initially led by Prince William (The Silent) of Orange (153384) that became a long struggle for independence. In 1579 under the Union of Utrecht the provinces of the Netherlands formed the United Provinces, which in 1581 broke away from Spanish rule, but did not gain international recognition as an independent state until 1648. Princes of the Orange family were stadholders (governors) of the nation. In the 17th century, the Dutch began to acquire colonies, and became the greatest commercial power in Europe. This brought the Dutch into conflict with England (165274; see pp. 41617), but when William of Orange became king of England in 1689, the fortunes of England and the Netherlands united in war against the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France (see p. 41415). Dutch power declined in the 18th century.
In 1795 the French invaded and ruled the country as the Batavian Republic (17951806) and the Kingdom of Holland (180610, under Louis Bonaparte). The Dutch lost important colonies to the British in the Napoleonic Wars, but kept an empire in Indonesia and the West Indies. The Congress of Vienna (1815) united all three Low Countries in the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the House of Orange, but Belgium broke away in 1830 and Luxembourg in 1890. The Dutch were neutral in World War I, but suffered occupation by the Germans from 194045. Following a bitter colonial war, the Dutch accepted that they could not reassert control over Indonesia after World War II. The Dutch have shown enthusiasm for European unity, and, with the other Low Countries, founded Benelux, the core of the EC. Dutch politics is characterized by a large number of small parties, some of a confessional nature, and a system of proportional representation has prevented any of these parties attaining a parliamentary majority. The formation of a new governent after each general election has been difficult and time-consuming.
The 97-member House of Representatives is elected by universal adult suffrage for three years under a system of proportional representation. Four constitiencies have a Maori electorate. The Governor General the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of New Zealand appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet, which is responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
Mountains run from north to south through South Island, and in the southwest reach the sea in the deeply indented coast of Fjordland. The Canterbury Plains lie to the east of the mountains. North Island is mainly hilly with isolated mountains, including volcanoes two of which are active. Lowlands on North Island are largely restricted to coastal areas and the Waikato Valley. The highest point is Mount Cook, which, since a major rock fall in 1991, rises to 3754 m (12315 ft). Principal rivers: Waikato 435 km (270 mi), Clutha 338 km (210 mi). Climate: The climate is temperate, although the north is warmer. Rainfall is abundant almost everywhere, but totals vary considerably with altitude and aspect, rising to over 6350 mm (250 in) on the west coast of South Island.
ECONOMY
The majority of New Zealands export earnings come from agriculture, in particular meat, wool and dairy products. Forestry is expanding and supports an important pulp and paper industry. Apart from coal, lignite, natural gas and gold, the country has few natural resources, although its considerable hydroelectric-power potential has been exploited to produce plentiful cheap electricity an important basis of New Zealands manufacturing industry. Natural gas from the Kapuni Field on North Island and the Maui Field off the Taranaki coast is converted to liquid fuel. Despite its small domestic market and being remote from the worlds major industrial powers, New Zealand has a high standard of living. Currency: New Zealand dollar.
HISTORY
The Maoris migrated from Polynesia to New Zealand during the 8th century (see p. 389). Although the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman discovered the Westland coast in 1642, European settlement in New Zealand dates only from the end of the 18th century, in part because of the hostility shown by the Maoris towards the intruders. James Cook circumnavigated both main islands (176970), and his descriptions of the country encouraged colonization. By the beginning of the 19th century, a number of whaling stations had been established in New Zealand by Australian interests. As colonization increased, Britain determined to annex New Zealand. North Island was ceded to the British Crown by Maori chiefs under the Treaty of Waitangi (1840), while South Island was claimed by right of discovery. New Zealand was governed as a part of New South Wales until a separate colonial government was established in 1841.
The 1840s were marked by fierce armed resistance to British settlement by the Maoris, the majority of whom live in North Island. Relations between the Maoris and the white settlers deteriorated further during the 1850s as the colonists sought more land and Maori chiefs increasingly refused to sell it. When troops were used to evict Maoris from disputed lands in Waitara, war broke out (1860). Fighting continued for most of the decade in North Island, and guerrilla action in the King Country the center of North Island was not suppressed until 1870. The Maori Wars retarded the European settlement of North Island, while in the last quarter of the 19th century the discovery of gold and the introduction of refrigerated ships to export meat and dairy products greatly stimulated the colonization and economy of South Island. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, North Island was dominant again, and by 1911 migrants from Britain had boosted the countrys population to one million. Subsequent immigration has remained overwhelmingly British, although there are sizeable communities of Samoans, Cook Islanders and Croats. Liberal governments (18911912) pioneered many reforms and social measures, including votes for women (1893) and the worlds first old-age pensions (1898). Dominion status was granted in 1907, although the country did not formally acknowledge its independent status until 1947.
In World War I, New Zealand fought as a British ally in Europe, achieving distinction in the disastrous Allied expedition to the Gallipoli peninsula during the campaign against Turkey (1915; see p. 387). When Japan entered World War II in 1941, New Zealands more immediate security was threatened. The major role played by the USA in the Pacific War led to New Zealands postwar alliance with Australia and America in the ANZUS pact, and the country sent troops to support the Americans in Vietnam. The entry of Britain into the EC in 1973 restricted the access of New Zealands agricultural products to what had been their principal market. Since then New Zealand has been forced to seek new markets, particularly in the Far and Middle East. Under Labor governments (197275 and 198490), the country adopted an independent foreign and defense policy. Since 1990 the National (conservative) government has sharply restricted the welfare state.
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NICARAGU
NICARAGUA
Official name: Rep
blica de Nicaragua (Republic of Nicaragua)
Member of: UN, OAS, CACM
Area: 131779 km2 (50880 sq mi)
Population: 4265000 (1993 est)
Capital: Managua 1108000 (city 682000; 1988 est)
Other major cities: Leon 101000 (1988 est)
Languages: Spanish (official), Miskito
Religion: Roman Catholic (90%)
GOVERNMENT
The 92-member National Assembly is elected by proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for six years. The President, who is also directly elected for six years, appoints a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Most Nicaraguans live on a fertile plain on the Pacific coast. Mountain ranges in the center rise to Pico Mogot
n at 2107 m (6913 ft). Tropical jungle covers the Atlantic coastal plain. Climate: The climate is tropical and humid with a rainy season from May to October.
ECONOMY
The largely agricultural economy was damaged in the 1980s by guerrilla warfare, a US trade embargo and hurricanes. Privatization and strict austerity programs are in force. Coffee, cotton and sugar cane are the main export crops. Currency: Cordoba.
HISTORY
In 1502 Columbus landed in Nicaragua, which remained a Spanish possession until independence was gained in 1821. Independent Nicaragua witnessed strife between conservatives and liberals. Early in the 20th century, the political situation deteriorated, provoking American intervention US marines were based in Nicaragua from 1912 to 1925, and again from 1927 until 1933. General Anastasio Somoza became president in 1937. Employing dictatorial methods, members of the Somoza family, or their supporters, remained in power until overthrown by a popular uprising led by the Sandinista guerrilla army in 1979. Accusing the Sandinistas of introducing Communism, the USA imposed a trade embargo on Nicaragua, making it increasingly dependent on Cuba and the USSR. Right-wing Contra guerrillas, financed by the USA, fought the Sandinistas from bases in Honduras. A ceasefire between the Contras and Sandinistas was agreed in 1989. In free presidential elections in 1990, the Sandinista incumbent Daniel Ortega was defeated by Violeta Chamorro.
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NIGER
NIGER
Official name: La R
publique du Niger (The Republic of Niger)
Member of: UN, OAU, ECOWAS
Area: 1186408 000 km2 (458075 sq mi)
Population: 8515000 (1993 est)
Capital: Niamey 398000 (1988 census)
Other major city: Zinder 121000 (1988 census)
Languages: French (official), Hausa (85%)
Religion: Sunni Islam (85%)
GOVERNMENT
An 83-member National Assembly and a President are elected by universal adult suffrage. The President who appoints a Prime Minister serves for seven years.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Niger lies in the Sahara Desert; the south and the Niger Valley are savannah. The central A
r Mountains rise to just over 2000 m (6562 ft). Principal river: Niger 4200 km (2600 mi). Climate: Niger is dry and hot. The south has a rainy season from June to October.
ECONOMY
Livestock herds and harvests of subsistence crops millet, sorghum, cassava and rice have been reduced by desertification, and the country is one of the poorest in West Africa. Uranium is mined. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
From the 15th century, the area was dominated in turn by the sultanate of Agad
s, Hausa kingdoms and the Nigerian empire of Sokoto. The French territory of Niger was proclaimed in 1901, but much of the country was not pacified until 1920. Independence was gained in 1960. After the economy was wracked by a prolonged drought, the military took power in a coup (1974). Multi-party politics were restored in 1992 and in free elections in 1993 power changed hands peacefully.
Capital: Abuja (new federal capital) 379000 (1991 census)
Other major cities: Lagos 5686000 (city 1347000), Ibadan 1295000, Kano 700000, Ogbomosho 661000, Oshogbo 442000, Ilorin 431000 (1991 census)
Languages: English (official), with over 150 local languages including Hausa, Yoruba and Ibo
Religions: Sunni Islam (48%), various Protestant Churches (17%), Roman Catholic (17%)
GOVERNMENT
A constitutional assembly was summoned in 1994. The Forces Ruling Council, whose President is head of state and of government, holds power following a coup in 1993. The 30 state administrations, the 450-member Federal Assembly and the two officially-sanctioned political parties were suspended in 1993.
GEOGRAPHY
Inland from the swampy forest and tropical jungles of the coastal plains, Nigeria comprises a series of plateau covered for the most part by open woodland or savannah. The far north is semi-desert. Isolated ranges of hills rise above the plateau, the highest of which are the central Jos Plateau and the Biu Plateau in the northeast. Vogel Peak (Dimlang) near the Cameroon border rises to 2042 m (6700 ft). Principal rivers: Niger 4200 km (2600 mi), Benue 1083 km (673 mi). Climate: The coastal areas are very humid and hot, with an average temperature of 32
C (90
F). Rainfall is heavy on the coast but decreases gradually inland although there is a rainy season from April to October. The dry far north experiences the Harmattan, a hot wind blowing out of the Sahara.
ECONOMY
Nigeria is the major economic power in West Africa. The country depends upon revenue from petroleum exports, but a combination of falling petroleum prices and OPEC quotas has resulted in major economic problems, although it has encouraged diversification. Natural gas is to be exported in liquid form to Europe. Major industries include petrochemicals, textiles and food processing. Over 50% of the labor force is involved in agriculture, mainly producing maize, sorghum, cassava, yams and rice as subsistence crops. Cocoa is an important export. Currency: Naira.
HISTORY
The Kanem empire flourished in North Nigeria from the 11th to the 14th centuries, during which time Islam was introduced. Various Hausa kingdoms rose in the northwest, which from the early 19th century contained the Fulani empire. Yoruba kingdoms and Benin occupied the southwest, and Ibo kingdoms the southeast. European intervention in the coastal region began with Portuguese explorers in the 15th century. From 1713 the slave trade in Nigeria came to be dominated by Britain. After British slave trading ended in 1807, British traders and explorers penetrated the interior. In 1861, Lagos was acquired, and in 1885 a British protectorate was established on the coast. In the scramble for empire, the commercial Royal Niger Company colonized the interior from 1886, and in 1900 its territories were surrendered to the British Crown as the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. In 1914 the coast and the interior were united to form Britains largest African colony.
An unwieldy federal structure introduced in 1954 was unable to contain regional rivalries after independence (1960). In 1966, the first PM, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (191266), and other prominent politicians were assassinated in a military coup. After a counter-coup brought General Yakubu Gowon to power, a bitter civil war took place (196770) when the Eastern Region the homeland of the Ibo attempted to secede as Biafra. Although the East was quickly re-integrated once Biafra was defeated, Nigeria remained politically unstable. The number of states has been gradually increased from three to 30 in an attempt to prevent any one state becoming dominant. A military coup overthrew Gowon in 1975, and an attempt at civilian rule (197983) also ended in a coup. Another coup brought General Ibrahim Babangida to power in 1985. Following unrest, limited civilian rule was introduced in 1993 but a further military coup took place in the same year. Presidential elections were annulled and the presumed winner of those elections was detained in 1994, after having declared himself president.
Official name: Kongeriket Norge (Kingdom of Norway)
Member of: UN, NATO, OSCE, OECD
Area: 323878 km2 (125050 sq mi), or 386958 km2 (149469 sq mi) including the Arctic island territories of Svalbard (formerly known as Spitsbergen) and Jan Mayen
Population: 4310000 (1993 est)
Capital: Oslo 467000 (1992 est)
Other major cities: Bergen 213000, Trondheim 138000, Stavanger 98000, Kristiansand 66000, Drammen 52000 (1991 est)
Languages: two official forms of Norwegian Bokmaal (80%), Nynorsk (or Landsmaal; 20%); Lappish
Religion: Lutheran (official; 88%)
Norwegian Antarctic Territories (with areas):
Bouvet Island 59 km2 (23 sq mi), no permanent settlement
Peter I Island 180 km2 (69 sq mi), no permanent settlement
Queen Maud Land as no inland limit to the Norwegian claim to part of mainland Antarctica has been made, no estimate of the area can be given; no permanent settlement
GOVERNMENT
Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The 165-member Parliament (Storting) is elected under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for a four-year term. In order to legislate, the Storting divides itself into two houses the Lagting (containing one quarter of the members) and the Odelsting (containing the remaining three quarters of the members). The King appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Storting. The PM, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Storting.
GEOGRAPHY
Norways coastline is characterized by fjords, a series of long narrow inlets formed by glacial action. The greater part of Norway comprises highlands of hard rock. Galdhopiggen the highest peak reaches 2469 m (8098 ft). The principal lowlands are along the Skagerrak coast and around Oslofjord and Trondheimsfjord. Svalbard is a bleak archipelago in the Arctic. Principal river: Glomma (Glama) 598 km (372 mi). Climate: Norways temperate climate is the result of the warming Gulf Stream. Summers are remarkably mild for the latitude, while winters are long and very cold. Precipitation is heavy over 2000 mm (80 in) in the west, with marked rain shadows inland.
ECONOMY
Norway enjoys a high standard of living. Agriculture is heavily subsidized and only a small proportion of the land can be cultivated chiefly for fodder crops for dairy cattle. Timber is a major export for Norway, over 50% of which is forested. Fishing is an important foreign-currency earner, and fish farming which has been encouraged by government development schemes is taking the place of whaling and deep-sea fishing. Manufacturing which has traditionally been concerned with processing fish, timber and iron ore is now dominated by petrochemicals and allied industries, based upon large reserves of petroleum and natural gas in Norways sector of the North Sea. Petroleum and natural gas supply over one third of the countrys export earnings. The development of industries such as electrical engineering has been helped by cheap hydroelectric power. There is some economic uncertainty after Norways rejection of EU membership (1994). Currency: Norwegian krone.
HISTORY
The period from the 9th to the 11th centuries was marked by the vigorous expansion of the Vikings from their Scandinavian homelands (see p. 397). Vikings from Norway plundered north Europe, settled in the British Isles, Iceland and Greenland and explored the Atlantic coast of North America. Norway itself was divided into a number of warring small kingdoms and was not united until 101530 under Olaf II Haraldsson, who converted many Norwegians to Christianity and later became the countrys patron saint. However, the instability and civil wars that had preceded his rule returned in the 12th century, and unity under a strong monarch was not experienced again until the reign of Haakon IV (reigned 121763).
The marriage of Haakon VI (reigned 13551380) to the future Queen Margre the I of Denmark united the destinies of Norway and Denmark. Danish kings who ruled Norway as a part of their own realm until 1814 ensured the early adoption of the Lutheran religion by Norwegians. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Norway attempted to regain autonomy, but the country came under the rule of the kings of Sweden, although a separate Norwegian Parliament was allowed a considerable degree of independence.
Growing nationalism in Norway placed great strains upon the union with Sweden, and in 1905 following a vote by the Norwegians to repeal the union King Oscar II of Sweden gave up his claims to the Norwegian crown to allow a peaceful separation of the two countries. After a Swedish prince declined the Norwegian throne, Prince Carl of Denmark was confirmed as King of Norway as Haakon VII by a plebiscite. Norway was neutral in World War I, and declared neutrality in World War II, but was occupied by German forces (1940) who set up a puppet government under Vidkun Quisling. After the war, Norway joined NATO. In 1972, and again in 1994, Norway agreed to enter the EC, but a national referendum rejected membership on both occasions, leaving Norway increasingly isolated outside Western Europes economic, political and defense organizations.
Oman is a monarchy ruled by a Sultan who appoints a Cabinet. He also chooses two of the four members elected from each of the 40 provinces to form an 80-member Majlis (an embryonic legislature). There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
A barren range of hills rises sharply behind a narrow coastal plain and reaches 3170 m (10400 ft) at Jabal ash Sham. Desert extends inland into the Rub al Khali (The Empty Quarter). A small detached portion of Oman lies north of the United Arab Emirates. Climate: Oman is very hot in the summer, but milder in winter and the mountains. The state is extremely arid with an average annual rainfall of 50 to 100 mm (24 in).
ECONOMY
Oman depends almost entirely upon exports of petroleum and natural gas. Owing to aridity, less than 1% of Oman is cultivated. The oil industry and much of the states modern commercial infrastructure depends upon foreign workers. Currency: Omani rial.
HISTORY
Persia ruled Oman from the 4th century ad until Muslim armies invaded bringing Islam in the 7th century. The areas flourishing trade with the east attracted the Portuguese (1507), who founded Muscat and occupied the coast until 1650. Ahmad ibn Said, who became Imam in 1749, founded the present dynasty. His successors built an empire including the Kenyan coast and Zanzibar, but in 1861 Zanzibar and Oman separated. A British presence was established in the 19th century and Oman did not regain complete independence until 1951. Sultan Qaboos who came to power in a palace coup in 1970 has modernized and developed Oman. In the 1970s South Yemen supported left-wing separatist guerrillas in the southern province of Dhofar, but the revolt was suppressed with military assistance from the UK.
Official name: Islami Jamhuria-e-Pakistan (Islamic Republic of Pakistan)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth
Area: 796095 km2 (307374 sq mi), excluding Pakistani-held areas of Kashmir (known as Azad Kashmir) and the disputed Northern Areas (Gilgit, Baltistan and Diamir) these Pakistani-occupied territories comprise 83716 km2 (33323 sq mi)
Population: 127960000 (1993 est; excluding Pakistani-held areas of Kashmir (known as Azad Kashmir) and the disputed Northern Areas (Gilgit, Baltistan and Diamir) these Pakistani- occupied territories had an estimated population of 3330000 in 1990
Religions: Sunni Islam (official; 92%), Shia Islam (5%), with Ismaili Muslim, Ahmadi and Christian minorities.
GOVERNMENT
The 87-member Senate (the upper house) comprises 19 senators elected for six years by each of the four provinces, plus 8 senators elected from the federally administered Tribal Areas and 3 senators chosen to represent the federal capital. The 237-member National Assembly comprises 207 members elected by universal adult suffrage for five years, 20 seats reserved for women and 10 members representing non-Islamic minorities. The President who is chosen by the Federal Legislature appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the National Assembly. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet of Ministers, responsible to the Assembly. The four provinces, Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas have their own legislatures.
GEOGRAPHY
The Indus Valley divides Pakistan into a highland region in the west and a lowland region in the east. In Baluchistan in the south the highlands consist of ridges of hills and low mountains running northeast to southwest. In the north in the North-West Frontier Province and the disputed territories the mountain chains rise to over 7000 m (21300 ft) and include the Karakoram, parts of the Himalaya and the Hindu Kush. K2 (Mount Godwin Austen), at 8607 m (28238 ft) the second highest peak in the world, is in the disputed territories. The Indus Valley and the valleys of its tributaries form a major agricultural region and contain the majority of Pakistans population. A continuation of the Indian Thar Desert occupies the east. Principal rivers: Indus 2880 km (1790 mi), Sutlej 1450 km (900 mi). Climate: The north and west of Pakistan are arid; the south and much of the east experience a form of the tropical monsoon. Temperatures vary dramatically by season and with altitude, from the hot tropical coast to the cold mountains of the far north.
ECONOMY
More than one half of the labor force is involved in subsistence farming, with wheat and rice as the main crops. Cotton is the main foreign-currency earner. The government is encouraging irrigation schemes, but over one half of the cultivated land is subject to either waterlogging or salinity. Although there is a wide range of mineral reserves including coal, gold and copper these resources have not been extensively developed. Manufacturing is dominated by food processing, textiles and consumer goods. Unemployment and underemployment are major problems, and the country relies heavily upon foreign aid and money sent back by Pakistanis working abroad. Currency: Pakistan rupee.
HISTORY
The Indus Valley was the seat of the ancient Harappan civilization (23001700 bc; see p. 384), but by 1500 bc the Ganges Basin had become the driving force in the subcontinent. The area was ruled by a succession of kingdoms and empires before the colonial age (see p. 385), and from the 8th century Pakistan was converted to Islam. From the 18th century the region came under British rule.
Pakistan as a nation was born in August 1947 when British India was partitioned as a result of demands by the Muslim League for an Islamic state in which Hindus would not be in a majority. Large numbers of Muslims moved to the new state and up to one million people died in the bloodshed that accompanied partition. Pakistan had two wings West Pakistan (the present country) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) separated by 1600 km (1000 mi) of Indian territory. A number of areas were disputed with India. Kashmir the principal bone of contention was effectively partitioned between the two nations, and in 194749 and 1965 tension over Kashmir led to war between India and Pakistan. The problem of Kashmir is unsolved with fighting continuing intermittently along parts of the ceasefire line.
The Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah (18761949) was the first Governor General, but Jinnah, who was regarded as father of the nation, died soon after independence. Pakistan which became a republic in 1956 suffered political instability and periods of military rule, including the administrations of General Muhammad Ayub Khan (from 1958 to 1969) and General Muhammad Yahya Khan (from 1969 to 1971). Although East Pakistan contained the majority of the population, from the beginning West Pakistan held political and military dominance. In elections in 1970, Shaikh Mujibur Rahmans Awami League won an overwhelming majority in East Pakistan, while the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won most of the seats in West Pakistan. Mujibur Rahman seemed less interested in leading a new Pakistani government than in winning autonomy for the East. In 1971, after abortive negotiations, the Pakistani army was sent from the West to East Pakistan, which promptly declared its independence as Bangladesh. Civil war broke out and India supported the new state, forcing the Pakistani army to surrender by the end of the year.
The leader of the PPP, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (PM 197277), was deposed in a military coup led by the Army Chief of Staff, Muhammad Zia al-Haq. Bhutto was imprisoned (1977) for allegedly ordering the murder of the father of a former political opponent, sentenced to death (1978) and, despite international protests, hanged (1979). In 1985 Zia lifted martial law and began to return Pakistan to civilian life. Zia was killed in a plane crash (1988). Following elections in 1988, Bhuttos daughter and the PPPs new leader, Benazir, became the first woman Prime Minister of an Islamic state. Since then although both Benazir Bhutto and and her successor were dismissed by the President constitutional rule has been in force. Benazir Bhutto returned to power in 1993.
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PALAU
PALAU
Official name: The Republic of Palau
Member of: Palau has not yet joined any major international organizations
Area: 508 km2 (196 sq mi)
Population: 15500 (1991 est)
Capital: Koror 9500 (1990 census)
Languages: Palauan (official; majority), Sonsorolese, English
Religions: Roman Catholic (majority); various Evangelical and Pentecostal Churches
GOVERNMENT
A President and Congress are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Congress comprises a 14-member Senate and a 16-member House of Delegates.
GEOGRAPHY
Palau comprises the volcanic, hilly, tropical island of Babelthuap, about 20 other small hilly islands and nearly 330 small atolls. Climate: Palau has a tropical maritime climate with heavy rainfall and little seasonal variation.
ECONOMY
Most Palauans are involved in subsistence farming and fishing. Tourism and the sale of fishing rights to foreign fleets are the main sources of foreign currency. Currency: Palau uses US currency.
HISTORY
Spain which had claimed the area since 1543 sold the islands to Germany in 1899. Occupied by Japanese forces in 1914, Palau remained under Japanese rule until taken by the USA in 1944. In 1947 Palau became part of the UN Pacific Islands Trust Territory under US administration. Palau became an autonomous republic in 1981 but, between 1983 and 1994 Palauans repeatedly rejected a Compact of Free Association with the USA, because the Compact would have entitled the USA to base nuclear weapons in the islands or its territorial waters. Palau eventually assumed complete independence in October 1994.
Capital: Panama City 828000 (city 585000; San Miguelito 243000; 1990 census).
Other major city: Col
n 141000 (1990 census).
Language: Spanish (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (85%)
GOVERNMENT
A 71-member Legislative Assembly and a President who appoints a Cabinet of Ministers are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Panama is a heavily forested mountainous isthmus joining Central America to South America. The highest point is the extinct volcano Baru at 3475 m (11 467 ft). Climate: Panama has a tropical climate with little seasonal change in temperature.
ECONOMY
Income from the Panama Canal is a major foreign-currency earner. Panama which has a higher standard of living than its neighbors has become an important offshore banking center. Major exports include bananas and shrimps. Currency: Balboa.
HISTORY
Panama was discovered in 1501, and became part of Spanish New Granada (Colombia). In the 1880s a French attempt to construct a canal through Panama linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans proved unsuccessful. After Colombia rejected US proposals for completing the canal, Panama became independent (1903), sponsored by the USA. The canal eventually opened in 1914. From 1903 to 1979 the USA controlled land extending 8 km (5 mi) on either side of the canal the Canal Zone. Panama will gain complete control of the canal itself in 2000. From 1983 to 1989 effective power was in the hands of General Manuel Noriega, who was deposed by a US invasion and taken to stand trial in the USA, where he was found guilty of criminal activities. The first completely free elections in Panamas history were held in 1994.
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PAPUA_NE
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Official name: The Independent State of Papua New Guinea
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, Apec
Area: 462840 km2 (178704 sq mi)
Population: 3920000 (1993 est)
Capital: Port Moresby 193000 (1990 census)
Other major city: Lae 81000 (1990 census)
Languages: English (official), Pidgin English, Motu and over 700 local languages
Religions: Roman Catholic (33%), various Protestant Churches (nearly 60%)
GOVERNMENT
A 109-member Parliament is elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The Governor General the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of Papua New Guinea appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in Parliament. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet, which is responsible to Parliament.
GEOGRAPHY
Broad swampy plains surround Papua New Guineas mountainous interior, which rises to Mount Wilhelm at 4509 m (14 493 ft). Climate: The country experiences a tropical climate with high temperatures and heavy monsoonal rainfall.
ECONOMY
Over 80% of the labor force is involved in agriculture mainly subsistence farming although agricultural exports include coffee, cocoa and coconuts. The mainstay of the economy is minerals, including large reserves of copper, gold and petroleum. Currency: Kina.
HISTORY
The first inhabitants of New Guinea came from Indonesia around 50000 bc (see pp. 38889). European colonization began in 1828 when the Dutch claimed West New Guinea. A British protectorate, established in the southeast in 1884, was transferred to Australia (1906) and renamed Papua. Northeast New Guinea came under German administration in 1884, but was occupied by Australian forces in 1914. From 1942 to 1945 Japanese forces occupied New Guinea and part of Papua. In 1949 Australia combined the administration of the territories, which achieved independence as Papua New Guinea in 1975. Bougainville island, a major source of copper, attempted to secede (199092). Fighting on the island decreased in 1992 and peace talks began, but the dispute continues.
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PARAGUAY
PARAGUAY
Official name: La Rep
blica del Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay)
Member of: UN, OAS, Mercosur, ALADI
Area: 406752 km2 (157048 sq mi)
Population: 4613000 (1993 est)
Capital: Asunci
n 732000 (city 608000; San Lorenzo 124000; 1990 est)
Other major city: Ciudad del Este 111000 (1990 est)
Languages: Spanish (7% as a first language; official), Guaran
(48% as a first language); bilingual Spanish-Guaran
(40%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (official; 96%)
GOVERNMENT
A President, an 80-member Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and a 45-member Senate (upper house) are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
The country west of the Paraguay River the Chaco is a flat semiarid plain. The region east of the river is a partly forested undulating plateau. Principal rivers: Paraguay 2550 km (1584 mi), Paran
4880 km (3032 mi). Climate: The climate is subtropical with considerable variation in rainfall between the wet southeast and the dry west.
ECONOMY
Agriculture the main economic activity is dominated by cattle ranching, cotton and soyabeans. Cheap hydroelectric power from installations on the Paran
, including the Yacyreta-Agipe dam (the worlds largest), has stimulated industry. Currency: Guarani.
HISTORY
The Spanish reached the area in the 1520s. Jesuit missionaries to the Guaran
Indians dominated the country from 1609 until 1767, when they were expelled. Since independence in 1811, Paraguay has suffered many dictators, including General Jos
Francia, who totally isolated Paraguay (181440). War against Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay (186570) cost Paraguay over one half of its population and much territory. Wars with Bolivia (1929-35) further weakened Paraguay. General Alfredo Stroessner gained power in 1954, ruling with increasing disregard for human rights until his overthrow in a military coup in 1989. Free elections were held in 1992.
Official name: Rep
blica del Per
(Republic of Peru)
Member of: UN, OAS, Andean Pact, ALADI
Area: 1285216 km2 (496225 sq mi)
Population: 22915000 (1993 est)
Capital: Lima 6405000 (city 5494000; Callao 515000; 1990 est)
Other major cities: Arequipa 612000, Trujillo 513000 (1990 est)
Languages: Spanish (68% as a first language), Quechua (27%), Aymara (3%) all official
Religion: Roman Catholic (official; 91%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and the National Congress comprising a 60-member Senate and a 180-member Chamber of Deputies are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. Former presidents serve as additional life members of the Senate. The President appoints a Council of Ministers headed by a Prime Minister.
GEOGRAPHY
The coastal plain is narrow and arid. The Andes which are prone to earthquakes run in three high parallel ridges from north to south, rising at Huascaran to 6768 m (22205 ft). Nearly two thirds of Peru is tropical forest (the Selva) in the Amazon Basin. Principal rivers: Amazon-Ucayali 6448 km (4007 mi). Climate: A wide climatic variety includes semitropical desert cooled by the Humboldt Current on the coast, the very cold Alpine High Andes and the tropical Selva with a heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
About one third of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Subsistence farming dominates in the interior; crops for export are more important near the coast. Major crops include coffee, sugarcane, cotton and potatoes, as well as coca for cocaine. Sheep, llamas, vicu
as and alpacas are kept for wool. Rich natural resources include silver, copper, coal, gold, iron ore, petroleum and phosphates. The fishing industry once the worlds largest has declined since 1971. A combination of natural disasters, a very high birth rate, guerrilla warfare and the declining value of exports has severely damaged the economy. Currency: New Sol.
HISTORY
When the Spanish arrived in Peru in 1531 the Inca Empire was at its peak (see p. 390). Inca resistance was quickly subdued by Pizarro and Peru became one of Spains most valuable possessions. Much of South America was governed from Lima as the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Independence was proclaimed in 1821 after the Argentine San Mart
n took Lima, but Spanish forces did not leave until 1824. Independent Peru saw political domination by large landowners. Progress was made under General Ramon Castilla (184462) and civilian constitutional governments at the beginning of the 20th century, but instability and military coups have been common. War (187983) in alliance with Bolivia against Chile resulted in the loss of nitrate deposits in the south, while victory against Ecuador (1941) added Amazonian territory. From 1968 a reformist military government instituted land reform, attempting to benefit workers and the Indians, but faced with mounting economic problems the military swung to the right in 1975. In 1980 elections were held, but owing to the economic crisis and the growth of an extreme left-wing guerrilla movement the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) Perus democracy remained under threat. In 1992, the president effected a coup, suspending the constitution and detaining opposition leaders. Subsequent elections were boycotted by the principal opposition parties. Guerrilla activity lessened after the capture of the leader of Sendero Luminoso, Abimael Guzman, in 1992.
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PHILIPPI
THE PHILIPPINES
Official name: Rep
blika
g Pilipinas (Republic of the Philippines)
Member of: UN, ASEAN, Apec
Area: 300076 km2 (115860 sq mi)
Population: 64955000 (1993 est)
Capital: Manila 7832000 (city 1599000; Quezon City 1667000; Caloocan City 761000; 1990 census)
Other major cities: Davao City 850000, Cebu City 610000 (1990 census)
Languages: Pilipino (based on Tagalog; national; 55%), Tagalog (over 20%), Cebuano (24%), Ilocano (11%), English, Spanish and many local languages
Religions: Roman Catholic (84%), Aglipayan Church (4%), Sunni Islam (5%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and the 24-member Senate the upper House of Congress are elected by universal adult suffrage for six years. The House of Representatives comprises 201 directly elected members and no more than 50 members appointed by the President from minority groups. The President appoints a Cabinet of Secretaries.
GEOGRAPHY
Some 2770 of the Philippines 7000 islands are named. The two largest islands, Luzon and Mindanao, make up over two thirds of the countrys area. Most of the archipelago is mountainous with restricted coastal plains, although Luzon has a large, densely populated central plain. Mount Apo, on Mindanao, is the highest point at 2954 m (9692 ft). Climate: The climate is tropical maritime with high humidity, high temperatures and heavy rainfall. Typhoons are frequent.
ECONOMY
Almost one half of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Rice and maize are the principal subsistence crops, while coconuts, sugar cane, pineapples and bananas are grown for export. Deforestation is a problem as land is cleared for cultivation. Major industries include textiles, food processing, chemicals and electrical engineering. Mineral resources include copper (a major export), gold, petroleum and nickel. Money sent back by Filipinos working abroad is an important source of foreign currency. Currency: Philippine peso.
HISTORY
Magellan discovered the islands in 1521, naming them after Philip II of Spain. Spanish rule spread through the archipelago from the middle of the 16th century, but was harassed by the Dutch and by Moro pirates from Mindanao. The Spanish colonial regime was harsh, and although trade grew, economic growth was not matched by political development. The islands administration was archaic and Jesuit influence was strong. Eventually a combination of rising nationalism and resentment at economic injustice led to an unsuccessful revolt (1896) against Spanish rule. The islands were ceded to the USA after the Spanish-American War (1898), but American rule had to be imposed by force and resistance continued until 1906. A powerful American presence had a profound effect on Filipino society, which bears the triple imprint of Asian culture, Spanish Catholicism and American capitalism. US policy in the Philippines wavered between accelerating and delaying Filipino self-rule. In 1935 the nationalist leader Manuel Quezon became president of the semi-independent Commonwealth of the Philippines. The surprise Japanese invasion of 1941 traumatized the islands American and Filipino defenders. Japan set up a puppet Philippine Republic, but, after the American recapture of the archipelago, a fully independent Republic of the Philippines was established in 1946.
Between 1953 and 1957 President Ramon Magsaysay crushed and conciliated Communist-dominated Hukbalahap guerrillas, but his death ended a program of land reforms. Coming to power in 1965, Ferdinand Marcos (191789) inaugurated flamboyant development projects, but his administration presided over large-scale corruption. Marcos used the continuing guerrilla activity as a justification for his increasingly repressive rule. When he attempted to rig the result of presidential elections in 1986, Marcos was overthrown in a popular revolution in favor of Corazon Aquino, the widow of a leading opposition politician who had allegedly been murdered on Marcos orders. Her government faced several attempted coups, but she was succeeded by the democratically elected President Fidel Ramos in 1992. Insurgency by groups including Communists and Islamic nationalists remains a problem.
Official name: Polska Rzecpospolita (Republic of Poland)
Member of: UN, CEFTA, OSCE
Area: 312683 km2 (120727 sq mi)
Population: 38520000 (1993 est)
Capital: Warsaw (Warszawa) 1656000 (1990 est)
Other major cities: Katowice 1604000 (city 367000; Sosnowiec 260000; Bytom 230000; Gliwice 222000; Zabrze 202000); L
dz 848000, Krak
w 751000, Wroclaw 643000, Poznan 590000, Gdansk 465000 (1990 est)
Language: Polish (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (93%)
GOVERNMENT
The 100-member Senate (upper house) and the 460-member Sejm (lower house) are elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. In the Sejm 391 seats are contested in constituencies and the remaining 69 are elected according to a system of proportional representation on party lists. The President who is also directly elected appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Sejm. The PM, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Poland consists of lowlands. In the north are the Baltic lowlands and the Pomeranian and Mazurian lake districts. Central Poland is a region of plains. In the south are the hills of Little Poland and the Tatra Mountains, whose highest peak is Rysys at 2499 m (8199 ft). Principal river: Vistula (Wisla) 1090 km (677 mi). Climate: Polands climate tends towards continental with short warm summers and longer cold winters.
ECONOMY
Polish agriculture remains predominantly small-scale and privately owned. Over 25% of the labor force is still involved in agriculture, growing potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beet and fodder crops. The industrial sector is large-scale. Poland has major deposits of coal, as well as reserves of natural gas, copper and silver. Engineering, food processing, and the chemical, metallurgical and paper industries are important, but the economic situation has steadily deteriorated since the 1960s. However, since privatization was accelerated after 1991, Poland has made impressive economic reforms and achieved higher growth rates than other East European countries. Living standards have, however, decreased. Poland is an associate of the EU/EC. Currency: Zloty.
HISTORY
Small Polish states united to form a single nation in the 11th century. Kings Wladyslaw I and Casimir III (the Great) strengthened Poland, encouraged trade, codified laws and founded the countrys first university at Krak
w. In 1386 Queen Jadwiga married Jagiello, the grand duke of Lithuania, uniting the two realms. The union of Lublin (1569) established full political ties between the two countries, and at its height the Commonwealth of Two Nations extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In 1572 the last of the Jagiellons died, leaving no heir. The monarchy became elective, and the power of both the sovereign and the Sejm declined. The country became involved in numerous wars against Muscovites, Turks, Tatars, Cossacks and Swedes. Poland was too weak to prevent a partition of its territory in 1772 by Russia, Prussia and Austria. Two further partitions took place in 1793 and in 1795, when Poland disappeared from the map of Europe.
In the 19th century the greater part of Poland was within Imperial Russia, against which the Poles revolted unsuccessfully in 1830, 1848 and 1863. National feeling also grew in the areas ruled by Austria and Prussia. After World War I, Poland was restored to statehood (1919), but the country was unstable. Marshal J
zef Pilsudski (18671935) staged a coup in 1926, and became a virtual dictator. During the 1930s relations with Hitlers Germany became strained (see p. 443). An alliance with Britain was not enough to deter Hitler from attacking Poland, and thus precipitating World War II (1939). Poland was partitioned once again, this time between Nazi Germany and the USSR. Occupied Poland lost one sixth of its population, including almost all the Jews, and casualties were high after the ill-fated Warsaw Rising (1944). Poland was liberated by the Red Army (1945), and a Communist state was established. The new Poland lost almost one half its territory in the east to the USSR, but was compensated in the north and west at the expense of Germany.
A political crisis in 1956 led to the emergence of a Communist leader who enjoyed a measure of popular support, Wladyslaw Gomulka. In 1980, following the downfall of Gomulkas successor, Edward Gierek, a period of unrest led to the birth of the independent trade union Solidarity (Solidarnosc), led by Lech Walesa (1943 ). Martial law was declared by General Wojciech Jaruzelski in 1981 in an attempt to restore Communist authority. Solidarity was banned and its leaders were detained, but public unrest and economic difficulties continued. In 1989 Solidarity was legalized and agreement was reached on political reform. Solidarity won free elections to the new Senate, and with the support of former allies of the Communists won enough seats to gain a majority in the Sejm, and to form a government. Solidarity leader Lech Walesa became President in 1990. Since multi-party elections for the Sejm were held in 1991, Solidarity has split and several short-lived coalition governments have held office.
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PORTUGAL
PORTUGAL
Official name: A Rep
blica Portuguesa (The Portuguese Republic)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, NATO, OSCE
Area: 92389 km2 (35672 sq mi), including Madeira and the Azores
Other major cities: Oporto (Porto) 1695000 (city 450000; Vila Nova de Gaia 65000), Set
bal 80000, Co
mbra 75000, Braga 67000 (1990 est)
Language: Portuguese (official; 100%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (94%)
Portuguese overseas territory: (with area, population and capital) 18 km2 (7 sq mi), 378000 (1993 est), Macau
GOVERNMENT
An executive President is elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. The 230-member Assembly is directly elected for four years. The President appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Assembly. The PM, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers (Cabinet), responsible to the Assembly. Madeira and the Azores have their own autonomous governments.
GEOGRAPHY
Behind a coastal plain, Portugal north of the River Tagus is a highland region at the center of which is the mainlands principal mountain range, the Serra da Estrela, rising to 1993 m (6539 ft). A wide plateau in the northeast is a continuation of the Spanish Meseta. Portugal south of the Tagus is mainly an undulating lowland. The Atlantic islands of Madeira and the Azores are respectively nearly 1000 km (620 mi) and 1200 km (745 mi) southwest of the mainland. At 2315 m (7713 ft), Pico in the Azores is Portugals highest peak. Principal river: Tagus (Rio Tejo) 1007 km (626 mi). Climate: Portugal has a mild and temperate climate which is wetter and more Atlantic in the north, and drier, hotter and more Mediterranean inland and in the south.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves 15% of the labor force, but lacks investment following land reforms in the 1970s, since when production has fallen. Major crops include wheat and maize, grapes (for wines such as port and Madeira), tomatoes, potatoes and cork trees. Portugal lacks natural resources. Manufacturing industry includes textiles and clothing (both of which are major exports), footwear, food processing, cork products, and, increasingly, electrical appliances and petrochemicals. Tourism and money sent back by Portuguese working abroad are major foreign-currency earners. Despite impressive recent economic development Portugal remains Western Europes poorest country. Currency: Escudo.
HISTORY
The north of Portugal resisted the Muslim conquests in the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century. Reconquest of Portuguese territory from the Muslims was slow, but Portugal a kingdom from 1139 established its present boundaries in 1270. In the 15th century Portugal became a dynamic trading nation. Prince Henry the Navigator (13941460) became a leading patron of Portuguese exploration, which in the 15th century had mapped much of the West African coast (see p. 405). By the middle of the 16th century Portugal had laid the foundations of a vast colonial empire in Brazil, Africa and Asia (see pp. 41011).
On the extinction of the Aviz dynasty in 1580, the thrones of Spain and Portugal were united, until a revolution in 1640 led to the accession of the Portuguese Braganza family. In the 17th and 18th centuries Portuguese power declined, but the country retained major colonies. In 1807 the royal family fled to Brazil to escape a Napoleonic invasion. King John VI did not return from Brazil until 1821, and, in his absence, the Portuguese had established a liberal constitution. Dynastic problems began when John VIs son Pedro declared Brazil independent (1822), and they continued in a crippling civil war (183234) between liberal constitutionalists supporting Queen Maria II (Pedros daughter) and absolutists under the rival King Miguel (Pedros brother). Instability continued for much of the 19th century. Portugals African empire was confirmed, although the country lacked the power to gain more territory in the scramble for Africa.
The monarchy was overthrown in 1910, but the Portuguese republic proved unstable and the military took power in 1926. From 1932 to 1968, under the dictatorship of Premier Antonio Salazar (18891970), stability was achieved but at great cost. Portugal became a one-party state, and expensive colonial wars dragged on as Portugal attempted to check independence movements in Angola and Mozambique. In 1974 there was a left-wing military coup whose leaders granted independence to the African colonies (197475), and initially attempted to impose Marxism on the country. However, elections in 1976 decisively rejected the far left. Civilian rule was restored as Portugal effected a transition from dictatorship to democracy, and simultaneously through the loss of empire and membership of the EC became more closely integrated with the rest of Europe.
Qatar is an absolute monarchy. The Amir who is head of state and of government appoints a Council of Ministers and a 35-member Advisory Council. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
Qatar is a low barren peninsula projecting into the Gulf. Climate: Qatar is very hot in summer, but milder in winter. Rainfall averages 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in).
ECONOMY
The export of petroleum and natural gas gives Qatar a high standard of living. The steel and cement industries have been developed in an attempt to diversify. Currency: Qatari riyal.
HISTORY
By the 8th century ad Qatar was Islamic and had developed as a trading center. In the 1860s Britain intervened in a dispute between Qatar and its Bahraini rulers, installing a member of the Qatari ath-Thani family as sheik. Qatar was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1872 until 1915. Its ruler signed protection treaties with Britain in 1916 and 1934, and did not regain complete independence until 1971.
Other major cities: Constanta 351000, Iasi 343000, Timisoara 334000, Cluj-Napoca 328000, Galati 326000, Brasov 324000 (1990 census)
Languages: Romanian (official; 89%), Hungarian (10%), German
Religions: Romanian Orthodox (70%), Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic and Calvinist minorities
GOVERNMENT
The President is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The 341-member National Assembly and 143-member Senate are directly elected under a modified system of proportional representation for four years. In both houses, seats are reserved for ethnic minorities. The President appoints a Prime Minister who, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The Carpathian Mountains run through the north, east and center of Romania. The highest point is Moldoveanu at 2544 m (8346 ft). To the west of the Carpathians is the tableland of Transylvania and the Banat lowland. In the south the Danube Plain ends in a delta on the Black Sea. Principal river: Danube (Dun
ria) 2850 km (1770 mi). Climate: Romania experiences cold snowy winters and hot summers. Rainfall is moderate in the lowlands but heavier in the Carpathians.
ECONOMY
State-owned industry which employs nearly 40% of the labor force includes mining, metallurgy, mechanical engineering and chemicals. Natural resources include petroleum and natural gas. Large forests support a timber and furniture industry. Major crops include maize, sugar beet, wheat, potatoes and grapes for wine, but agriculture has been neglected, and food supplies have fallen short of Romanias needs. Most farming land has been privatized. Economic mismanagement under Ceausescu decreased low living standards, and Romania faces severe economic difficulties. Much of industry remains unprivatized. Currency: Leu.
HISTORY
Romanians claim descent from the Dacians, a Thracian people, who were Romanized in the 2nd and 3rd centuries ad. They survived as a Latinate population by retreating to the highlands, and emerged to found the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia in the 14th century. Although compelled to accept Ottoman overlordship in the 15th century, they were never subjected to direct Turkish rule. Oppressive rule by Greek princes imposed by the Turks in the 18th century stimulated Romanian nationalism. Unity was achieved when Alexander Cuza was elected prince of both Walachia and Moldavia (1859). A German dynasty was chosen in 1866, and Romanias independence was internationally recognized in 1878.
When both the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires collapsed at the end of World War I, Romania won additional territory with substantial Romanian populations from both. Greater Romania was beset with deep social and ethnic divisions, which found expression in the rise of the Fascist Iron Guard in the 1930s. King Carol II suppressed the Guard and substituted his own dictatorship, but he was forced by Germany to cede lands back to Hungary (1940), while the USSR retook considerable territories, including the present Moldova. Carol fled and Romania under Marshal Ion Antonescu joined the Axis powers (1941), fighting the USSR to regain lost territories. King Michael dismissed Antonescu and declared war on Germany as the Red Army invaded (1944), and a Soviet-dominated government was installed (1945). The monarchy was abolished in 1947. From 1952, under Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (190165) and then under Nicolae Ceausescu (191889), Romania distanced itself from Soviet foreign policy while maintaining strict Communist orthodoxy at home. Ceausescu and his wife Elena impoverished Romania by their harsh, corrupt and nepotistic rule. When the secret police put down demonstrations in Timisoara (1989), the leaders of an anti-Ceauscescu conspiracy within the army and the Communist Party took power, executing Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu on charges of genocide and corruption. A National Salvation Front (NSF) was formed and the Communist Party was dissolved. An international team of monitors judged multi-party elections in 1990 to be flawed but not fraudulent. The NSF split and its larger offshoot, the Party of Social Democracy, has formed the government since 1992. Power remains largely in the hands of former Communists.
publique rwandaise (French) or Republika yu Rwanda (Kinyarwanda) (Republic of Rwanda)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 26338 km2 (10169 sq mi)
Population: 5500000 (1994 est), after massacres and the flight of refugees
Capital: Kigali 300000 (1990 est); the population was reduced by at least 50% in 1994
Languages: French (12%; official), Kinyarwanda (85%; official)
Religions: Roman Catholic (63%), animist (21%)
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for the election of a President who appoints a Council of Ministers and a 70-member Assembly for five years by universal adult suffrage.
GEOGRAPHY
Rwanda is a mountainous country rising to Mount Karisimbi at 4507 m (14 787 ft). Most of the western boundary is formed by Lake Kivu. Climate: The climate is tropical with cooler temperatures in the mountains.
ECONOMY
The economy was devastated by civil war and genocide in 1994. Most Rwandans are subsistence farmers. Coffee and tin are the main exports. There are major (unexploited) reserves of natural gas under Lake Kivu. Currency: Rwanda franc.
HISTORY
The kingdom of Rwanda whose Tutsi minority dominated the majority Hutu tribe was a German possession from 1890 to 1916 and then under Belgian rule until independence in 1962. The Tutsi monarchy was overthrown by the Hutu in 1961 and many Tutsis fled into exile. From 1978 to 1991 Rwanda was a single-party state. Tribal violence followed a Tutsi attempt to regain power in 1983 and in 199091 the FPR, an army of Tutsi refugees, occupied much of the north. After a plane carrying President Habyarimana was shot down in 1994, government forces went on the rampage. In the ensuing ethnic violence Hutu militias massacred over 500000 Tutsis and over 2000000 (mainly Hutu) refugees fled the country as the FPR took power. The UN sanctioned a (largely French) peace-keeping mission and international aid programs are bringing relief to refugees at camps in Zaire and Tanzania.
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SAINT_CH
SAINT CHRISTOPHER AND NEVIS
Official name: The Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis. St Christopher is popularly known as St Kitts.
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAS, CARICOM
Area: 262 km2 (101 sq mi)
Population: 41800 (1991 census)
Capital: Basseterre 15000 (1991 census)
Language: English (official)
Religions: Anglican (36%), Methodist (32%)
GOVERNMENT
The National Assembly consists of 11 members elected by universal adult suffrage for five years and three or four appointed members. The Governor General the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of St Kitts appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Assembly. The PM appoints a Cabinet responsible to the Assembly. Nevis has its own legislature.
GEOGRAPHY
St Kitts and Nevis are two well-watered mountainous islands, set 3 km (2 mi) apart. Climate: The moist tropical climate is cooled by sea breezes.
ECONOMY
The economy is based on agriculture (mainly sugar cane) and tourism. Currency: East Caribbean dollar.
HISTORY
Both islands were discovered by Columbus in 1493, settled by the English early in the 17th century, but disputed by France in the 18th century. St Kitts was united with Nevis and the more distant small island of Anguilla in a single British colony, which gained internal self-government in 1967. When Anguilla a reluctant partner proclaimed independence, the British intervened, eventually restoring Anguilla to colonial rule, while St Kitts-Nevis progressed to independence in 1983.
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SAINT_LU
SAINT LUCIA
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAS, CARICOM
Area: 616 km2 (238 sq mi)
Population: 136000 (1993 est)
Capital: Castries 57000 (city 11000; 1990 census)
Languages: English (official), French patois (majority)
Religion: Roman Catholic (over 80%)
GOVERNMENT
The 11-member Senate is appointed. The 17-member House of Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The Governor General as representative of the British Queen as sovereign of St Lucia appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet which is responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
St Lucia is a forested mountainous island rising to Mount Gimie at 959 m (3145 ft). Climate: St Lucia has a wet tropical climate. There is a dry season from January to April.
ECONOMY
The economy depends on agriculture, with bananas and coconuts as the main crops. Tourism is the largest single employer on the island. Currency: East Caribbean dollar.
HISTORY
St Lucia was discovered early in the 16th century and was disputed between England and France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, finally being confirmed as a British colony in 1814. Internal self-government was achieved in 1967 and independence in 1979.
The single-chamber House of Assembly consists of six nominated senators and 15 representatives elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The Governor General who is the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of St Vincent appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority of the representatives. The PM in turn appoints a Cabinet responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
The mountainous wooded island of St Vincent rises to Mount Soufri
re an active volcano at 1234 m (4048 ft). The Grenadines which include Bequia and Mustique are a chain of small islands to the south of St Vincent. Climate: The country experiences a tropical climate with heavy rainfall in the mountains.
ECONOMY
Bananas and arrowroot are the main crops of a largely agricultural economy. Upmarket tourism is being promoted in the Grenadines. Currency: East Caribbean dollar.
HISTORY
St Vincent was discovered by Columbus in 1498, but resistance by the native Carib Indians delayed European settlement until the 18th century. The island became a British colony in 1763, gained internal self-government in 1969, and achieved independence in 1979.
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Official name: Serenissima Reppublica di San Marino (Most Serene Republic of San Marino)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 61 km2 (23 sq mi)
Population: 24100 (1993 est)
Capital: San Marino 9000 (city 4200; 1991 est)
Other main town: Serravalle 7300 (1991 est)
Language: Italian (official)
Religion: Roman Catholic (official; 95%)
GOVERNMENT
The 60-member Great and General Council is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The Council elects two of its members to be Captains-Regent, who jointly hold office as heads of state and of government for six months. The Captains-Regent preside over a 10-member Congress of State the equivalent of a Cabinet which is elected by the Council for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
The country is dominated by the triple limestone peaks of Monte Titano at 739 m (2424 ft). Climate: San Marino has a mild Mediterranean climate.
ECONOMY
Manufacturing and tourism in particular visitors on excursions are the mainstays of the economy. Currency: San Marino uses Italian currency.
HISTORY
Established as an independent commune by the 12th century, San Marino retained its autonomy because of its isolation and by playing off powerful neighbors against each other. Its independence was recognized by Napoleon Bonaparte (1797), the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the new Kingdom of Italy (1862). In 1957 a bloodless revolution replaced the Communist-Socialist administration that had been in power since 1945.# San Marino is included in the EU/EC by special agreement.
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SAO_TOME
O TOM
E PR
NCIPE
Official name: A Rep
blica de S
o Tom
e Pr
ncipe (Republic of S
o Tom
and Pr
ncipe)
Member of: UN, OAU
Area: 964 km2 (372 sq mi)
Population: 125000 (1993 est)
Capital: S
o Tom
43000 (1993 est)
Languages: Portuguese (official); Fang (90%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (50%)
GOVERNMENT
The 55-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The President who appoints a Prime Minister and Council of Ministers is also directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
The republic consists of two mountainous islands about 144 km (90 mi) apart. S
o Tom
rises to 2024 m (6640 ft). Climate: The climate is tropical. A wet season with heavy rainfall lasts from October to May.
ECONOMY
Cocoa is the mainstay of a largely agricultural economy. Most of the land is nationalized. Currency: Dobra.
HISTORY
The islands were first settled as a convict colony by the Portuguese in the late 15th century, and became slave-trading centers. Early in the 20th century, the islands plantations were notorious for forced labor. Independence was gained in 1975 as a one-party socialist state. The Marxist system was abandoned in 1990, and multi-party elections were held in 1991.
Official name: Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya as-Saudiya (The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)
Member of: UN, Arab League, OPEC, GCC
Area: 2240000 km2 (864869 sq mi)
Population: 17420000 (1993 est)
Capital: Riyadh (Ar Riyad) 2000000 (including suburbs; 1986 est)
Other major cities: Jeddah (Jiddah) 1400000, Mecca (Makkah) 620000, Medina (Al-Madinah) 500000 (all including suburbs; 1986 est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religion: Islam (official) Sunni (mainly Wahhabi) 92%, Shia 8%
GOVERNMENT
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy with neither formal political institutions nor parties. The King appoints a Council of Ministers and a 60-member consultative Council to hold office for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
Over 95% of the country is desert, including the Rub al-Khali (The Empty Quarter) the largest expanse of sand in the world. The Arabian plateau ends in the west in a steep escarpment overlooking a coastal plain beside the Red Sea. There are no permanent streams. Climate: The country is very hot with temperatures up to 54
C (129
F). The average rainfall is 100 mm (4 in), but many areas receive far less and may not experience any precipitation for years.
ECONOMY
Saudi Arabias spectacular development and present prosperity are based almost entirely upon exploiting vast reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Industries include petroleum refining, petrochemicals and fertilizers. The country has developed major banking and commercial interests. Less than 1% of the land can be cultivated. Currency: Rial.
HISTORY
The Prophet Muhammad was born in the early 7th century ad in Mecca where he received revelations from God and proclaimed Islam (see p. 478). Arabia quickly became Muslim, but, following the Prophets death, the political focus of Islam moved, first to Damascus, then to Baghdad. The unity of Muslim Arabia collapsed and gave way to tribal rivalries. Early in the 16th century the Ottoman Turks established their authority over much of the peninsula. In 1744 a Muslim preacher Muhammad ibn abd al-Wahhab and the ancestor of the countrys present rulers, the Saudis, formed an alliance that was to spearhead the Wahhabi political-religious campaign. In the 20th century the Wahhabis united most of Arabia under Ibn Saud (18821953). In 1902 Ibn Saud took Riyadh and in 1906 defeated his rivals to control central Arabia (Nejd). Between 1912 and 1927 he added the east, the southwest (Asir) and the area around Mecca (Hejaz). In 1932 these lands became the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Although the country has been pro-Western, after the 1973 Arab-Israeli War (see p. 455), Saudi Arabia put pressure on the USA to encourage Israel to withdraw from the occupied territories of Palestine by cutting oil production. Saudi Arabia has not escaped problems caused by religious fundamentalism and the rivalry between Sunni and Shia Islam. Saudi Arabia found itself bound to support Iraq in its war with Shiite Iran (1980), but played a major role in the coalition against Iraq in the Gulf War (1991). In the early 1990s fundamentalist and liberal opposition to the Saudi government increased.
Languages: French (official), Wolof (36%), Serer (19%)
Religions: Sunni Islam (94%), Roman Catholic
GOVERNMENT
Every five years the 120-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage. The Assembly comprises 60 members elected from single member constituencies and 60 members elected nationally by proportional representation. The President, who is directly elected for seven years, appoints and leads a Cabinet which includes a Prime Minister.
GEOGRAPHY
Senegal is mostly low-lying and covered by savannah. The Fouta Djalon mountains in the south rise to Gounou Mountain at 1515 m (4970 ft). Principal river: S
gal 1641 km (1020 mi). Climate: Senegal has a tropical climate with a dry season from October to June.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves over 75% of the labor force. Groundnuts and cotton are grown as cash crops, and rice, maize, millet and sorghum as subsistence crops. The manufacturing sector is one of the largest in West Africa, but unemployment is a major problem. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
The region was part of the medieval empire of Mali. The coast was explored by the Portuguese in the 15th century and gradually came under French control from the 17th century. A national political awareness developed in the early 20th century, and the country contributed substantially to the nationalist awakening in French Africa. After independence in 1960 under the poet, L
opold Sedar Senghor (1906 ) Senegal maintained close relations with France, and received substantial aid. Attempted federations with Mali (195960) and Gambia (198189) were unsuccessful. Senghor retired in 1980, having re-introduced party politics.
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SEYCHELL
SEYCHELLES
Official name: The Republic of Seychelles
Member of: UN, OAU, Commonwealth
Area: 455 km2 (176 sq mi)
Population: 71000 (1993 est)
Capital: Victoria 24000 (1987 est)
Languages: Creole (95%), English, French all official
Religions: Roman Catholic (92%), Anglican
GOVERNMENT
The President who appoints a Council of Ministers and the 33-member National Assembly are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The National Assembly comprises 22 members elected from constituencies and 11 members elected nationally under a system of proportional representation.
GEOGRAPHY
The Seychelles consist of 40 mountainous granitic islands and just over 50 smaller coral islands. Climate: The islands have a pleasant tropical maritime climate with heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
The economy depends heavily on tourism, which employs about one third of the labor force. Fishing has expanded, and tuna and prawns are major exports. Currency: Seychelles rupee.
HISTORY
The islands became a French colony in the middle of the 18th century, were ceded to Britain in 1814 and gained independence in 1976. The PM Albert Ren
led a coup against President James Mancham in 1977, and established a one-party socialist state. Attempts to overthrow Ren
, including one involving South African mercenaries (1981), were unsuccessful. Multi-party elections were held in 1992.
Languages: English (official), Krio, Mende (34%), Temne (31%)
Religions: animist (52%), Sunni Islam (39%)
GOVERNMENT
There is constitutional provision for a President who appoints a Cabinet to be elected for seven years by universal adult suffrage and for a 124-member House of Representatives to be directly elected for five years. Power is currently exercised by a military council.
GEOGRAPHY
The savannah interior comprises plateau and mountain ranges rising to Bintimani Peak at 1948 m (6390 ft). The swampy coastal plain is forested. Climate: The climate is tropical with a dry season from November to June.
ECONOMY
Subsistence farming mainly rice involves the majority of the labor force. Rutile, bauxite and cocoa are major exports. Unrest and the decline of diamond mining have added to severe economic problems, and by 1995 much of the infrastructure of the country had been destroyed. Currency: Leone.
HISTORY
Freetown was founded by British philanthropists (1787) as a settlement for former slaves and became a British colony in 1808. The interior was added in 1896. Independence was gained in 1961. A disputed election led to army intervention (1967), and Dr Siaka Stevens who came to power in a coup in 1968 introduced a one-party state. A military junta seized power in 1992, but the country gradually collapsed into anarchy. By 1995 a guerrilla movement controlled part of the south and east, and law-and-order had broken down in much of the country.
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SINGAPOR
SINGAPORE
Official name: Hsing-chia po Kung-ho Kuo (Chinese) or Republik Singapura (Malay) or Republic of Singapore
Member of: UN, ASEAN, Commonwealth, Apec
Area: 639 km2 (247 sq mi)
Population: 2876000 (1993 est)
Capital: Singapore 2876000 (1993 est)
Languages: Chinese (77%), Malay (14%), Tamil (5%), English all official
Religions: Buddhist and Daoist (54%), Sunni Islam (15%), various Christian Churches (13%), Hinduism
GOVERNMENT
The 81 members of Parliament are elected from single- and multi-member constituencies by universal adult suffrage for five years. The President who is elected by Parliament for four years appoints a Prime Minister who commands a parliamentary majority. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet which is responsible to Parliament. The constitution is to be revised in 1995 to create an executive presidency.
GEOGRAPHY
Singapore is a low-lying island with 56 islets joined to the Malay peninsula by causeway. Climate: The climate is tropical with monsoon rains from December to March.
ECONOMY
Singapore relies on imports for its flourishing manufacturing industries (electronics, oil refining, rubber processing, food processing) and entrep
t trade. Finance and tourism are important. Singapore has the second highest standard of living in Asia. Currency: Singaporean dollar.
HISTORY
Singapore was a trading center until destroyed by the Javanese in the 14th century. The city was revived by Sir Stamford Raffles for the British East India Company (1819), and developed rapidly as a port for shipping Malayas tin and rubber. It acquired a cosmopolitan population and became a strategic British base. Occupied by the Japanese (194245), it achieved self-government (1959), and joined (1963) and left (1965) the Federation of Malaysia. After independence it became wealthy under the strong rule of Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew (1923 ; PM 196591).
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SLOVAKIA
SLOVAKIA
Official name: Republika Slovensk
(Slovak Republic)
Member of: UN, CEFTA, OSCE
Area: 49 036 km2 (18 933 sq mi)
Population: 5330000 (1993 est)
Capital: Bratislava 444000 (including suburbs; 1991 census)
Other major cities: Kosice 235000, Nitra 90000, Presov 88000 (including suburbs; 1991 census)
Languages: Slovak (87%), Hungarian (12%)
Religions: Roman Catholic (60%), Evangelical Churches (6%).
GOVERNMENT
The 150-member Assembly is elected under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Assembly elects a President for a five-year term. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers, responsible to the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
Slovakia mainly comprises mountain ranges, including the Tatra Mountains, which rise to Gerlachovka at 2655 m (8737 ft) on the Polish border. The only significant lowlands are in the south adjoining the River Danube. Climate: The climate is continental with warm, relatively dry, summers and cold winters.
ECONOMY
Slovakia has a mainly agricultural economy into which heavy industry particularly steel and chemicals was introduced when the country was part of Communist Czechoslovakia. Wheat, maize, potatoes, barley and sheep are important. Varied natural resources include iron ore and brown coal. At the dissolution of Czechoslovakia about two-thirds of Slovak industry was privatized, but independent Slovakia has slowed the privatization of its uncompetitive out-of-date factories. Currency: Slovakian koruna.
HISTORY
Slovakia was part of Hungary from the 11th century, although when most of Hungary fell to the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century, Slovakia remained in the hands of the Habsburgs. Slovak nationalism grew in the 19th century and increased Magyarization under the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (18671918) was greatly resented. On the collapse of the Habsburg Empire (1918), the Slovaks joined the Czechs to form Czechoslovakia. When Hitlers Germany dismembered Czechoslovakia in 1938, Slovakia became an Axis puppet state. A popular revolt against German rule (the Slovak Uprising) took place in 1944. Following liberation (1945) Czechoslovakia was re-established.
After the Communist takeover in 1948, heavy industry was introduced into rural Slovakia. In 1968, moves by Party Secretary Alexander Dubcek (a Slovak) to introduce political reforms met with Soviet disapproval, and invasion by Czechoslovakias Warsaw Pact allies. The conservative wing of the Communist party regained control until 1989, when student demonstrations developed into a peaceful revolution. The Communist Party renounced its leading role. A new government, in which Communists were in a minority, was appointed. In 1990 free multi-party elections were held, Soviet troops were withdrawn and the foundations of a market economy were laid, but the pace of economic reform brought distress to Slovakia, whose old-fashioned industries were ill-equipped to face competition. Increased Slovak separatism led to the division of the country in 1993. Independent Slovakia faces possible tension concerning a large Hungarian minority. Slovakia has achieved associate status of the EU/EC and aspires to full membership.
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SLOVENIA
SLOVENIA
Official name: Republika Slovenija (The Republic of Slovenia)
Member of: UN, OSCE
Area: 20256 km2 (7821 sq mi)
Population: 1997000 (1993 est)
Capital: Ljubljana 323000 (city 28900; 1991 census)
Other major cities: Maribor 153000 (city 104000), Celj 41000, Kranj 36000 (1991 census)
Languages: Slovene (91% as a first language; official), with Serb, Croat, Italian and Magyar minorities
Religion: Roman Catholic (over 60%)
GOVERNMENT
The 90-member National Assembly and a President who appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet are directly elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Assembly comprises 38 members elected by single-member constituencies, 50 members elected nationally under a system of proportional representation and one member elected by each of the national minorities (Italian and Hungarian).
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Slovenia comprises mountains, including the Karawanken and Julian Alps in the northwest, which rise to Triglav at 2864 m (9396 ft), and the Dinaric Alps in the west. In the east, hill country adjoins the Drava valley; in the southwest, Slovenia has a very short Adriatic coastline. Climate: The south and west have a Mediterranean climate; the north and east are more continental. Rainfall is heavy in the mountains.
ECONOMY
With a standard of living approaching that of West European countries, Slovenia was the most industrialized and economically developed part of Yugoslavia. Industries include iron and steel, textiles and coal mining. Agriculture specializes in livestock and fodder crops. Forestry is important. Privatization of agriculture and industry was completed by 1995. Slovenia has not suffered the severe economic decline that has characterized other former Yugoslav republics. Currency: Tolar.
HISTORY
The Slovenes arrived in the west Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. In the 9th century, the area was divided between several German rulers and only the Slovenes in the south (Carniola) resisted Germanization. Carniola became a Habsburg (Austrian) province in 1335 and, although it remained under Habsburg rule almost continuously until 1918, the Slovenes managed to preserve their national identity. Official encouragement of the Slovene language under Napoleonic French rule (180914) gave impetus to a Slovene national revival in the 19th century. When the Habsburg Empire collapsed (1918), the Slovenes joined the Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins in the new state that was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. When Yugoslavia became a Communist federal state in 1945, the Slovene lands were reorganized as the republic of Slovenia. After the death of Yugoslav President Tito (1980), the federation faltered in nationalist crises. Slovenia, the wealthiest part of Yugoslavia, edged towards democracy. In free elections in 1990, nationalists gained a majority in the Slovene Assembly, which declared independence in June 1991. Following reverses in a short campaign, Yugoslav federal forces were withdrawn from Slovenia, whose independence gained international recognition in 1992. Slovenia has become an associate member of the EU/EC.
Languages: English (official), Pidgin English, over 85 local (mainly Melanesian) languages
Religions: Anglican (34%), Roman Catholic (19%), other Christian Churches
GOVERNMENT
The 47-member National Parliament which is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years elects a Prime Minister who appoints a Cabinet. A Governor General is the representative of the British Queen as sovereign of the islands. A federal republican constitution is to be adopted.
GEOGRAPHY
The mountainous volcanic Solomons rise to Mount Makarakomburu at 2447 m (8028 ft). Climate: The climate is tropical with temperature and rainfall maximums from November to April.
ECONOMY
Most of the labor force is involved in subsistence farming, although copra and cocoa are exported. Fishing is a major industry. Currency: Solomon Islands dollar.
HISTORY
Settled by Melanesians about 2500 bc (see p. 389), the islands were briefly colonized by Spain (15681606). The islanders were exploited as a workforce for plantations in other Pacific islands before Britain established a protectorate in 1893. Occupied by the Japanese (194245), the Solomons were the scene of fierce fighting, including a major battle for Guadalcanal (see p. 445). Independence was gained in 1978.
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SOMALIA
SOMALIA
Official name: Soomaaliya (Somalia)
Member of: UN, Arab League, OAU
Area: 637 657 km2 (246 201 sq mi)
Population: 8050000 (1991 est); up to 1000000 Somalis are refugees in surrounding countries
Capital: Mogadishu 1000000 (1986 est)
Other major city: Hargeisa 400000 (1986 est)
Languages: Somali (national), Arabic (official)
Religion: Sunni Islam (official)
GOVERNMENT
The most recent constitution provides for the election of a 171-member Assembly and a President by universal adult suffrage. Since 1991 there has been no effective government.
GEOGRAPHY
Somalia occupies the Horn of Africa. Low-lying plains cover most of the south, while semi-arid mountains in the north rise to Surud Ad at 2408 m (7900 ft). Climate: Somalia is hot and largely dry with rainfall totals in the north as low as 330 mm (13 in).
ECONOMY
Nearly two thirds of the labor force are nomadic herdsmen or subsistence farmers. Bananas are grown for export in the south, but much of the country suffers drought. As a result of the civil war since 1991, much of the economic infrastructure of the country has been destroyed and widespread famine has occurred. Currency: Somali shilling.
HISTORY
Muslim traders established trading posts along the Somali coast from the 7th century. In 1886 Britain established a protectorate in the north of the region, while the Italians took the south. In World War II the Italians briefly occupied British Somaliland. In 1960 the British and Italian territories were united as an independent Somalia. In 1969 the president was assassinated and the army under Major-General Muhammad Siad Barre seized control. Barres socialist Islamic Somalia became an ally of the USSR. In 1977 Somali guerrillas, with Somali military support, drove the Ethiopians out of the largely Somali-inhabited Ogaden. Somalias Soviet alliance was ended when the USSR supported Ethiopia to regain the Ogaden. Barre was overthrown in 1991. Since 1991 the infrastructure of Somalia has collapsed in bitter civil war between several factions and the former British north has attempted to secede. In 1992, a US-led UN force intervened to relieve famine victims, but UNinvolvement ended in 1995 with the conflict between various Somali clans and warlords no nearer solution.
Other major cities: Johannesburg 4000000 (city proper 632000; Greater Johannesburg 1609000; Soweto 915000; Sasolburg 540000; Vereeniging 540000), Durban 982000 (city 634000), Port Elizabeth 652000 (city 273000), Bloemfontein (judicial capital) 233000 (city 104000) (1985 census)
Languages: Xhosa (21%), Zulu (16%), English, Afrikaans, Sesotho, North Sotho, Tswana, Swazi, Ndebele, Venda, Tsonga all official
Religions: independent Black Churches (22%), Afrikaans Reformed (12%), Roman Catholic (8%), Methodist (6%), with Anglican, Hindu and Sunni Islam minorities
GOVERNMENT
The Constitutional Assembly which is scheduled to draft and agree a final constitution within two years comprises a Senate (upper house) and a National Assembly (lower house). The 90-member Senate comprises ten senators appointed from each of the nine provinces in proportion to the number of votes each party receives in that province. The 400-member National Assembly comprises 200 members elected by universal adult suffrage from constituencies and 200 members elected according to a system of proportional representation from the nine provinces that form the quasi-federal system. A President and two Vice-Presidents are elected by the Assembly. A Cabinet of National Unity is responsible to the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
The Great Escarpment rises behind a discontinuous coastal plain and includes the Drakensberg Mountains, which reach 3408 m (11182 ft) at Injasuti. A vast plateau occupies the interior, undulating in the west and rising to over 2400 m (about 8000 ft) in the east. Much of the west is semi-desert, while the east is predominantly savannah grassland (veld). Principal rivers: Orange (Oranje) 2092 km (1300 mi), Limpopo 1770 km (1100 mi). Climate: South Africa has a subtropical climate with considerable regional variations. The hottest period is between December and February. Rainfall is highest on the east coast, but much of the country is dry.
ECONOMY
The country is the worlds leading exporter of gold which normally forms about 40% of South African exports and a major producer of uranium, diamonds, chromite, antimony, platinum and coal (which meets three quarters of the countrys energy needs). Industry includes chemicals, food processing, textiles, motor vehicles and electrical engineering. Agriculture supplies one third of South Africas exports, including fruit, wine, wool and maize. The highest standard of living in Africa is very unevenly distributed between Whites and Non-whites. The withdrawal of some foreign investors in the 1970s and 1980s increased the drive towards self-sufficiency. The new South Africa is experiencing an economic recovery. Currency: Rand.
HISTORY
Black African peoples were long established in what is now South Africa when White settlement began in the Dutch colony of Cape Town (1652). Slaves were imported, but the conquest of the local African societies only completed late in the 19th century provided an alternative source of labor. Britain acquired the Cape (1814), abolished slavery (1833), and annexed Natal (1843). The Boers (or Afrikaners) of Dutch and French Huguenot descent moved inland on the Great Trek (183537) to found the republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State.
After the discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold (1886), the Boers led by Paul Kruger (18251904), president of the Transvaal resisted British attempts to annex their republics in which British settlers were denied political rights. This culminated in the Boer War (18991902). Despite their military superiority, the British initially suffered defeats and were beseiged in a number of towns, including Mafeking and Ladysmith. In 1900 the Boers were beaten in the field but began guerrilla action. The British responded by interning the families of the guerrillas, and more than 20000 Boer women and children died of disease in internment camps. Although they lost the war, the Afrikaners were politically dominant when the Union of South Africa was formed (1910). The creation of the African National Congress (ANC) in 1912 was a protest against White supremacy, and by the 1920s Black industrial protest was widespread. South Africa entered World War I as a British ally, taking German South West Africa (Namibia) after a short campaign (191415) after the war, the territory came under South African administration. Despite strong Afrikaner opposition, South Africa under General Jan Christiaan Smuts (18701950; PM 191924 and 193948) joined the Allied cause in World War II.
After the Afrikaner National Party came to power (1948), racial segregation was increased by the policy of apartheid (separate development), which deprived Blacks of civil rights, segregated facilities (such as schools and hospitals) and areas of residence by race, and confined black political rights to restricted homelands (Bantustans). Black opposition was crushed following a massacre of demonstrators at Sharpeville, and the ANC was banned (1960) by the government of Hendrik Verwoerd (190166; PM 195866, when he was assassinated). International pressure against apartheid increased. In 1961 South Africa left the Commonwealth, the majority of whose members continue to press for economic sanctions against South Africa. In 1966 the UN canceled South Africas trusteeship of South West Africa (Namibia), but South Africa continued to block the territorys progress to independence.
Black opposition revived in the 1970s and 1980s and found expression in strikes, the Soweto uprising of 1976, sabotage and the rise of the Black consciousness movement. South African troops intervened in the civil war in Angola against the Marxist-Leninist government (1981) and were active in Namibia against SWAPO nationalist guerrillas. P.W. Botha (1916 ; PM 19781984 and president 198489) granted political rights to the Colored and Indian communities, and implemented minor reforms for Blacks. However, in 1986 in the face of continuing unrest Botha introduced a state of emergency, under which the press was strictly censored, the meetings of many organizations were banned and the number of political detainees including children rose sharply. His successor F.W. de Klerk released some ANC prisoners, promised further reforms and agreed to UN-supervised elections in Namibia leading to independence for that territory.
In 1990 de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC and released its imprisoned leader Nelson Mandela (1918 ). In 199091, negotiations between the government and Black leaders led to the dismantling of the legal structures of apartheid. Fighting between (mainly Xhosa) ANC and (mainly Zulu) Inkatha supporters in Black townships caused concern, but a new constitution was agreed and the homelands were reabsorbed into South Africa. The first multi-racial elections in South Africa were held in March 1994. Mandela was elected President and a multi-party multi-racial Cabinet of National Unity was formed. South Africa has since joined the OAU and rejoined the Commonwealth.
Area: 504782 km2 (194897 sq mi) including the Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla
Population: 39952000 (1991 census)
Capital: Madrid 4846000 (city 3121000; including suburbs; 1991 census)
Other major cities: Barcelona 3400000 (city 1707000; LHospitalet 269000; Badalona 206000; Sabadell 184000), Valencia 1060000 (city 777000), Seville (Sevilla) 754000 (city 684000), Zaragoza 614000, M
laga 525000, Bilbao 477000 (city 372000), Las Palmas (de Gran Canaria) 348000, Valladolid 345000, Murcia 329000, Palma de Mallorca 309000, C
rdoba 309000 (1991 census)
Languages: Spanish or Castilian (official; as a first language over 70%), Catalan (as a first language over 20%), Basque (3%), Galician (4%)
Religion: Roman Catholic (95%)
GOVERNMENT
Spain is a constitutional monarchy. The Cortes (Parliament) comprises a Senate (Upper House) and a Chamber of Deputies (Lower House). The Senate consists of 208 senators 4 from each province, 5 from the Balearic Islands, 6 from the Canary Islands and 2 each from Ceuta and Melilla elected by universal adult suffrage for four years, plus 47 senators indirectly elected by the autonomous communities. The Congress of Deputies has 350 members directly elected for four years under a system of proportional representation. The King appoints a Prime Minister (President of the Council) who commands a majority in the Cortes. The PM, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers (Cabinet) responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. Each of the 17 Spanish autonomous communities (regions) has its own legislature.
GEOGRAPHY
In the north of Spain a mountainous region stretches from the Pyrenees dividing Spain from France through the Cantabrian mountains to Galicia on the Atlantic coast. Much of the country is occupied by the central plateau, the Meseta. This is around 600 m (2000 ft) high, but rises to the higher Sistema Central in Castile, and ends in the south at the Sierra Morena. The Sierra Nevada range in Andalusia in the south contains Mulhac
n, mainland Spains highest peak at 3478 m (11411 ft). The principal lowlands include the Ebro Valley in the northeast, a coastal plain around Valencia in the east, and the valley of the Guadalquivir River in the south. The Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean comprise four main islands Mallorca (Majorca), Menorca (Minorca), Ibiza and Formentera with seven much smaller islands. The Canary Islands, off the coast of Morocco and the Western Sahara, comprise five large islands Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and La Palma plus two smaller islands and six islets. Pico del Tiede in the Canaries is Spains highest peak at 3716 m (12192 ft). The cities of Ceuta and Melilla are enclaves on the north coast of Morocco. Principal rivers: Tagus (Tajo) 1007 km (626 mi), Ebro 910 km (565 mi). Climate: The southeast has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers and mild winters. The dry interior is continental with warm summers and cold winters. The high Pyrenees have a cold Alpine climate, while the northwest (Galicia) has a wet Atlantic climate with cool summers.
ECONOMY
Over 10% of the labor force is involved in agriculture. The principal crops include barley, wheat, sugar beet, citrus fruit and grapes (for wine). Pastures for livestock occupy some 20% of the land. Manufacturing developed rapidly from the 1960s, and there are now major motor-vehicle, textile, plastics, metallurgical, shipbuilding, chemical and engineering industries. Foreign investors have been encouraged to promote new industry, but unemployment remains high. Banking and commerce are important, and tourism is a major foreign-currency earner. Over 53000000 foreign tourists a year visit Spain, mainly staying at beach resorts on the Mediterranean, Balearic Islands and the Canaries. Currency: Peseta.
HISTORY
In the 8th century bc Greek settlements were founded on the Mediterranean coast, and in the following century Celtic peoples settled in the Iberian Peninsula. In the 6th century bc the Carthaginians founded colonies in Spain, including Barcelona, Cartagena and Alicante, but from the time of the Second Punic War (218 bc) the Romans gradually annexed Iberia. Roman rule in Spain lasted until the Germanic invasions of the 5th century. By the 7th century almost all of the Iberian Peninsula was controlled by the Visigoths and Christianity had been introduced. Muslim invaders from Morocco overran most of the peninsula rapidly (711714) and a powerful emirate, later a caliphate, was established at C
rdoba, which became one of the most important cities in the Islamic world (see p. 392). From the 11th century, a lengthy struggle began as small Christian kingdoms in the north of Spain began to expand south into Muslim areas (the Reconquista; see p. 399). Asturias was the first Spanish Christian kingdom to defeat the Moors at Covadonga (722) but by 1035 Castile, Aragon and Navarre were the leaders of the reconquest. By the 13th century only Granada remained in Muslim hands.
Unity was achieved following the marriage in 1469 of Ferdinand II (14521516; king of Aragon after 1479) to Isabella I (14511504; queen of Castile after 1474). The new nations domestic and international situation changed rapidly. Granada was reconquered from the Moors in 1492, and a dramatic expansion of Spanish power outside of Europe began almost immediately. The Spanish monarchs sponsored voyages of discovery and gained an empire in Central and South America (see p. 410). In 1516, Charles I (150058; after 1519 the Emperor Charles V) became king of Spain and brought Habsburg domination to Europe (see pp. 41011). Control of such vast territories by one ruler proved impossible, and after Charles abdication in 1555, the Habsburg realms were divided between what became the Austrian and Spanish branches of the family. The territories of the Spanish ruler were further diminished by the revolt and then the independence of the Netherlands (15681648). Many Spaniards played important roles in the Counter-Reformation of the 16th and 17th centuries (see p. 409). Philip II encouraged the Inquisition and sent the Armada against Protestant England, while Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuits, and the example of Teresa of Avil
encouraged mysticism in Roman Catholicism.
Spanish power in the 17th and 18th centuries was probably overextended. The wealth of the Latin American possessions was not used to power economic development in Spain. The 17th-century Spanish Habsburgs were not as gifted as their ancestors and were unable to override strong provincial loyalties and institutions that hindered the development of a centralized state. In 1700, the Habsburg line ended and a grandson of Louis XIV of France, became the first Bourbon king of Spain as Philip V (16831746). In the subsequent War of the Spanish Succession (170114), Spain lost further possessions including Belgium, Luxembourg, Lombardy, southern Italy and Sardinia and ceded Gibraltar to Britain. However, Spains Bourbon rulers brought a measure of reform and enlightenment to a deeply conservative country. In 1808 Napoleon placed his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, but Spanish resistance was spirited and in 1814 the British and Spanish armies forced the evacuation of the French (see p. 427).
King Ferdinand VII (17841833) restored in 1814 was an absolutist who rejected a liberal constitution introduced in his absence. He lost the Latin American empire when the Spanish possessions in Central and South America made good use of Spains weakness to take their independence. During the first half of the 19th century, Spain saw a series of struggles between liberal and monarchist elements, with radical republicans poised to intervene from the left and army officers from the right. In the Carlist Wars (183339, 1849 and 187276) the supporters of Queen Isabella II (18301904) Ferdinand VIIs daughter countered the rival claims of her uncle Don Carlos and his descendants. Isabella was deposed in the revolution of 1868, which was followed by a short-lived liberal monarchy under an Italian prince (187073) and a brief republican experiment in 187374. In the last decades of the 19th century, the political situation became increasingly unstable, with the turmoil of labor disturbances, pressure for provincial autonomy, and growing anti-clericalism. As a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898 the last significant colonial possessions Cuba, the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico were lost. The end of Spains empire inflicted a severe wound to Spanish pride and led to doubts as to whether the constitutional monarchy of Alfonso XIII (18861941) was capable of delivering the dynamic leadership that Spain was thought to require.
Spain remained neutral in World War I, during which social tensions increased. A growing disillusionment with parliamentary government and political parties led to a military coup in 1923 led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera (18701930). Primo was initially supported by Alfonso XIII, but in 1930 the King withdrew that support. However, the range of forces arrayed against the monarchy and the threat of civil war led Alfonso to abdicate (1931). The peace of the succeeding republic was short-lived. Neither of the political extremes left nor right was prepared to tolerate the perceived inefficiency and lack of authority of the Second Spanish Republic. In 1936, the army generals rose against a newly elected republican government. Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco (18921975) and supported by Germany and Italy fought the republicans in the bitter Spanish Civil War (see p. 443). Franco triumphed in 1939 to become ruler Caudillo of the neo-Fascist Spanish State. Political expression was restricted, and from 1942 to 1967 the Cortes (Parliament) was not directly elected. Spain remained neutral in World War II, although it was beholden to Germany. After 1945, Franco emphasized Spains anti-Communism a policy that brought his regime some international acceptance from the West during the Cold War.
In 1969, Franco named Alfonso XIIIs grandson Juan Carlos (1938 ) as his successor. The monarchy was restored on Francos death (1975) and the King eased the transition to democracy through the establishment of a liberal constitution in 1978. In 1981 Juan Carlos played an important role in putting down an attempted army coup. In 1982 Spain joined NATO and elected a socialist government. Since 1986 the country has been a member of the EC. Despite the granting of regional autonomy (1978), Spain continues to be troubled by campaigns for provincial independence, for example in Catalonia, and by the violence of the Basque separatist movement ETA.
Official name: Sri Lanka Prajatantrika Samajawadi Janarajaya (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth
Area: 65610 km2 (25332 sq mi)
Population: 17615000 (1993 est)
Capital: Colombo administrative capital 1459000 (city 615 000; Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte, usually known as Kotte legislative capital and the national capital designate 109000; Dehiwala-Mt Lavinia 191000; Moratuwa 170000; 1989 est)
Other major cities: Jaffna 143000, Kandy 102000 (1989 est)
Languages: Sinhala (72%), Tamil (21%), English all official
Religions: Buddhist (69%), Hindu (15%), Sunni Islam (8%), Christian (mainly Roman Catholic; 7%)
GOVERNMENT
The 225-member Parliament is elected for six years under a system of proportional representation by universal adult suffrage. The President who is also directly elected for six years appoints a Cabinet and a Prime Minister who are responsible to Parliament. Constitutional changes scheduled for 1995 include the return of a parliamentary (rather than a presidential) system of government.
GEOGRAPHY
The central highlands of Sri Lanka rise to Pidurutalagala at 2527 m (8292 ft). Most of the rest of the island consists of forested lowlands which in the north are flat and fertile. Climate: The island has a tropical climate modified by the monsoon. Rainfall totals vary between 5000 mm (20 in) in the southwest and 1000 mm (40 in) in the northeast.
ECONOMY
About one half of the labor force is involved in agriculture, growing rice for domestic consumption, and tea, rubber and coconuts for export. Major irrigation and hydroelectric installations on the Mahaweli River are being constructed. Industries include food processing and textiles, but the economy in particular tourism has been damaged by separatist guerrilla activity. Currency: Sri Lankan rupee.
HISTORY
In the 6th century bc Sinhalese invaders from north India arrived in Ceylon as Sri Lanka was known before 1972. They established a capital at Anuradhapura, which became a key center of Buddhist learning (see p. 384). In the 12th century Tamil invaders from south India established a kingdom in the north, where they displaced the Sinhalese. Spices drew Arab traders. Trading settlements were founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century, and then by the Dutch, who were invited by the king of Kandy to oust the Portuguese in the 17th century. From 1796 British rule replaced the Dutch, uniting the entire island for the first time.
Nationalist feeling grew from the beginning of the 20th century, leading to independence in 1948, and a republican constitution in 1972. The country has been bedeviled by Tamil-Sinhalese ethnic rivalry, which led to major disorders in 1958, 1961 and since 1977. In 1971 a Marxist rebellion was crushed after heavy fighting. Sri Lanka elected the worlds first woman Prime Minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike (1916 ; PM 196065, 197077 and 1994 ). Since the 1980s separatist Tamil guerrillas have fought for an independent homeland (Eelam). Fighting between rival Tamil guerrilla groups, Sinhalese extremists and government forces reduced the northeast to near civil war. An Indian peace-keeping force intervened (1987), but this aggravated an already complex situation. Indian forces withdrew in 1990, and Tamil guerrilla activity continued in the northeast. Tension increased in 1993 after the assassination of President Premasada by a Tamil. Elections in 1993 brought to power the (socialist) Sri Lanka Freedom Party, which is prepared to grant autonomy to a Tamil region. A ceasefire was agreed, and peace talks proposed, in 1995.
Religions: Sunni Islam (70%), animist (22%), various Christian Churches (8%)
GOVERNMENT
Since the military coup in 1989, Sudan has been ruled by the 15-member Command Council of the Revolution of National Salvation, whose chairman is head of state and of government. A 300-member Transitional National Assembly was appointed in 1992. It is envisaged that in future the Assembly will comprise representatives from provincial councils, which, in turn, will consist of delegates from directly elected popular committees.
GEOGRAPHY
The Sahara Desert covers much of the north and west, but is crossed by the fertile Nile Valley. The southern plains are swampy. Highlands are confined to hills beside the Red Sea and mountains on the Ugandan border. Principal river: Nile 6648 km (4132 mi). Climate: The south is equatorial, but the north is dry with some areas receiving negligible rainfall.
ECONOMY
Over 65% of the labor force is involved in agriculture, growing cotton for export and sorghum and millet for domestic consumption. Since the early 1980s Sudan has been severely affected by drought, civil war and famine. Currency: Dinar.
HISTORY
Northern Sudan once known as Nubia was strongly influenced by Egypt, and was later the seat of the kingdom of Kush (600 bcad 350). Medieval Christian kingdoms fell to Muslim invaders from the 13th century. In 182021 Sudan was conquered by the Egyptians, who were challenged in the 1880s by an Islamic leader who claimed to be the Mahdi (see p. 479). The Mahdists took Khartoum, killed Sudans Egyptian-appointed governor, General Charles George Gordon (1885), and created a theocratic state. Britain intervened, and from 1899 Sudan was administered jointly by Britain and Egypt. Nationalism developed strongly after World War I, but independence was only gained in 1956. Sudan remains politically unstable, alternating between civilian and military regimes. The civil war between the Muslim north and the animist-Christian south that began in 1955 remains unresolved. The military regime that came to power in 1989 has intensified the offensive against Christian rebels in the south, has encouraged Islamic fundamentalism and has led Sudan into international isolation through its backing for Iraq and Libya.
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SURINAME
SURINAME
Official name: Republiek Suriname (Republic of Suriname)
Member of: UN, OAS
Area: 163265 km2 (63037 sq mi)
Population: 405000 (1993 est)
Capital: Paramaribo 246000 (city 68000; 1988 est)
Languages: Dutch (official; 30%), Sranang Togo (Creole; 31% as a first language), Hindi (30% as a first language), Javanese (15% as a first language), Chinese, English (official), Spanish (official designate)
Religions: Hinduism (28%), Roman Catholic (22%), Sunni Islam (20%), Moravian (15%)
GOVERNMENT
The 51-member National Assembly is elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. A President and a Vice-President who is also the Prime Minister are elected by the Assembly. The President appoints a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Suriname comprises a swampy coastal plain, a forested central plateau, and mountains in the south. Climate: Suriname has a tropical climate with heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
The extraction and refining of bauxite is the mainstay of the economy. Other exports include shrimps, sugar and oranges. The economy has been hampered by instability and emigration. Currency: Suriname guilder.
HISTORY
Dutch settlement began in 1602 and the area was confirmed as a Dutch colony in 1667. Suriname has a mixed population, including American Indians, and the descendants of African slaves and of Javanese, Chinese and Indian plantation workers. Since independence in 1975, racial tension has contributed to instability and there have been several coups.
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SWAZILAN
SWAZILAND
Official name: Umbuso Weswatini (The Kingdom of Swaziland)
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAU
Area: 17363 km2 (6704 sq mi)
Population: 814000 (1993 est)
Capitals: Mbabane administrative capital 39000, Lobamba legislative capital 6000 (1986 census)
Other major city: Manzini 52000 (1986 census)
Languages: siSwati and English (both official)
Religions: various Protestant Churches (37%), independent African Churches (28%), animist (21%), Roman Catholic (11%)
GOVERNMENT
Swaziland is a monarchy in which the King appoints a Prime Minister and Cabinet. The King is advised by the 30-member Senate and the 65-member House of Assembly, and appoints 10 members to the House and 20 to the Senate. The 45 other members of the House are elected by universal adult suffrage; the 10 other members of the Senate are appointed by the House. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
From the mountains of the west which rise to 1869 m (6100 ft) Swaziland descends in steps of savannah (veld) towards hill country in the east. Climate: The veld is subtropical, while the highlands are temperate.
ECONOMY
The majority of Swazis are subsistence farmers. Cash crops include sugar cane (the main export). Currency: Lilangeni (plural emalangeni).
HISTORY
The Swazi kingdom was formed early in the 19th century, and came under British rule in 1904. The country resisted annexation by the Boers in the 1890s and by South Africa during the colonial period. Following independence (1968), King Sobhuza II suspended the constitution in 1973 and restored much of the traditional royal authority. A bitter power struggle after his death (1982) lasted until King Mswati III was invested in 1986.
Official name: Konungariket Sverige (Kingdom of Sweden)
Member of: UN, EU/EC, OECD, OSCE
Area: 449964 km2 (173732 sq mi)
Population: 8727000 (1993 est)
Capital: Stockholm 1471000 (city 679000; 1990 census)
Other major cities: G
teborg (Gothenburg) 720000 (city 432000), Malm
466000 (city 235000; Lund 90000), Uppsala 171000 (city 168000), Link
ping 124000, Orebro 122000, Norrk
ping 121000, Vasteras 120000 (1990 census)
Languages: Swedish (official; nearly 100%), small Lappish minority
Religion: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden (over 85%)
GOVERNMENT
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy in which the King is ceremonial and representative head of state without any executive role. The 349-member Riksdag (Parliament) is elected for three years by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation. The Speaker of the Riksdag nominates a Prime Minister who commands a parliamentary majority. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet of Ministers who are responsible to the Riksdag.
GEOGRAPHY
The mountains of Norrland along the border with Norway and in the north of Sweden cover two thirds of the country, rising at Kebnekaise to 2123 m (6965 ft). Svealand in the center is characterized by a large number of lakes. In the south are the low Smaland Highlands and the fertile lowland of Skane. Climate: Sweden experiences long cold winters and warm summers, although the north where snow remains on the mountains for eight months is more severe than the south, where Skane has a relatively mild winter.
ECONOMY
Swedens high standard of living has been based upon its neutrality in the two World Wars, its cheap and plentiful hydroelectric power and its mineral riches. The country has about 15% of the worlds uranium deposits, and large reserves of iron ore that provide the basis of domestic heavy industry and important exports to Western Europe. Agriculture like the bulk of the population is concentrated in the south. The principal products include dairy produce, meat, barley, sugar beet and potatoes. Vast coniferous forests are the basis of the paper, board and furniture industries, and large exports of timber. Heavy industries include motor vehicles (Saab and Volvo), aerospace and machinery, although the large shipbuilding industry has ceased to exist. Rising labor costs, high inflation and labor unrest added to growing economic problems, and Sweden was badly hit by recession in the early 1990s. As a result, the state has reduced its activities and a program of privatization was implemented. Currency: Krona.
HISTORY
Sweden became Christian in the 10th and 11th centuries, and a stable monarchy dominated much of the Middle Ages. In 1397, the crowns of Sweden, Norway and Denmark were united, and for just over a century Sweden struggled for independence and then with Denmark for dominance of Scandinavia. Stability returned with the accession in 1523 of Gustaf I (reigned 152360), who founded the Vasa dynasty and confiscated Church lands, an act that led to the Reformation in Sweden. Under the Vasas, Swedens role in northern Europe expanded considerably, particularly during the reign of Gustaf II Adolf (better known as Gustavus Adolphus; reigned 161132), when Sweden played a major part on the Protestant side in the Thirty Years War (see p. 409). Gustavus Adolphus, a brilliant tactician, gained initial successes in Germany, and by the time of his death in battle at L
tzen (1632), Sweden was a great power. His able chief minister Axel Oxenstierna (15831654) helped win a Baltic empire that by 1648 included Finland, Estonia, Latvia and parts of northern Germany.
The military adventures of Charles XII (reigned 16971718) in the Great Northern War (170021) ended in defeat. The Battle of Poltava (1709) was a turning point in European history and marked the rise of Russia to prominence at the expense of Sweden. Throughout the 18th century Sweden was troubled by internal struggles between the monarchy and the aristocracy. Involvement in the Napoleonic Wars was Swedens last conflict, and since then the country has enjoyed neutrality. The founder of the present Swedish dynasty, the French marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, was elected crown prince to the childless king (1810), and succeeded in 1818. In 1814 Sweden lost Finland and the last possessions south of the Baltic, but gained Norway from Denmark in compensation. The union of Norway and Sweden was dissolved in 1905 when King Oscar II (reigned 18721907) gave up the Norwegian throne upon Norways vote for separation.
In the 20th century neutral Sweden developed a comprehensive welfare state under social democratic governments. The country assumed a moral leadership on world issues but was jolted by the (unclaimed) assassination of PM Olof Palme (1986). In the 1990s economic necessity has obliged Sweden to dismantle aspects of the welfare system. The country became a member of the EU/EC in 1995.
Languages: German (65% as a first language), French 18% (first language), Italian (10% first language), Romansch (under 1%) all official
Religions: Roman Catholic (47%), various Reformed Protestant Churches (43%)
GOVERNMENT
Switzerland is a federal republic in which each of the 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons has its own government with very considerable powers. Federal matters are entrusted to the Federal Assembly comprising the 46-member Council of States and the 200-member National Council. The Council of States is directly elected for three or four years with two members from each canton and one from each half-canton. The National Council is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation. The Federal Assembly elects a seven-member Federal Council the equivalent of a Cabinet for four years. The Federal Council appoints one of its members to be President for one year. All federal and cantonal constitutional amendments must be approved by a referendum.
GEOGRAPHY
The parallel ridges of the Jura Mountains lie in the northwest on the French border. The south of the country is occupied by the Alps, which rise to Dufourspitze (Monte Rosa) at 4634 m (15203 ft). Between the two mountain ranges is a central plateau that contains the greater part of Switzerlands population, agriculture and industry. Principal rivers: Rhine (Rhein) 1320 km (820 mi), Rh
ne 812 km (505 mi). Climate: Altitude and aspect modify Switzerlands temperate climate. Considerable differences in temperature and rainfall are experienced over relatively short distances; for instance, the cold Alpine climate around the St Gotthard Pass is only 50 km (just over 30 miles) from the Mediterranean climate of Lugano.
ECONOMY
Nearly two centuries of neutrality have allowed Switzerland to build a reputation as a secure financial center. Z
rich is one of the worlds leading banking and commercial cities. The country enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world. Industry in part based upon cheap hydroelectric power includes engineering (from turbines to watches), textiles, food processing (including cheese and chocolate), pharmaceuticals and chemicals. Dairying, grapes (for wine) and fodder crops are important in agriculture, and there is a significant timber industry. Tourism and the international organizations based in Switzerland are major foreign-currency earners. Foreign workers in particular Italians help alleviate the countrys labor shortage. Currency: Swiss franc.
HISTORY
Switzerland occupies a strategic position, but the Swiss have used their remarkable position to withdraw from, rather than participate in, European power politics. In the 11th century, what is now Switzerland became part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1291, three local territorial units the Forest Cantons of Schwyz (which gave its name to the country), Unterwalden and Uri joined together in a League against the (Austrian) Habsburg Emperors. Other similar cantons joined the infant League throughout the later Middle Ages, and by 1513 the League included 13 cantons and a variety of dependent territories. Intense religious rivalries in the 16th century with Z
rich, Basel, Berne and Schaffhausen becoming Protestant resulted in a civil war that tested but did not destroy the League. At the end of the Thirty Years War (1648), Switzerlands independence was finally recognized.
The French Revolutionary Wars saw the creation of a Helvetian Republic in 1798, but in 1803 Napoleon dismantled this unitary state and returned the country to a confederation. At the Congress of Vienna (1815) Swiss neutrality was recognized and the country gained its present boundaries. Continuing tensions in the early 19th century saw attempts by some cantons to secede and set up a new federation, but the compromises of a new constitution in 1848 which is still the basis of Swiss government balanced cantonal and central power. As a neutral country Switzerland proved the ideal base for the Red Cross (1863), the League of Nations (1920) and other world organizations, but Switzerland has avoided membership of any body it considers might compromise its neutrality. In national referenda the Swiss have voted against membership of the UN and of the EEA (the trade agreement that links EC countries and those West European countries that have not joined the Common Market).
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SYRIA
SYRIA
Official name: Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya as-Suriya (The Syrian Arab Republic)
Member of: UN, Arab League
Area: 185180 km2 (71498 sq mi) including the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights
Population: 13400000 (1993 est)
Capital: Damascus (Dimashq) 1451000 (1992 est)
Other major cities: Halab (formerly Aleppo) 1445000, Homs 518000 (1992 est)
Languages: Arabic (89%; official); Kurdish (6%)
Religions: Islam (official; Sunni 90%, Shia and Druze minorities), with various Orthodox and Roman Catholic minorities (9%)
GOVERNMENT
The 250-member National Peoples Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The President who is directly elected for seven years appoints a Prime Minister (to assist him in government) and a Council of Ministers. The National Progressive Front including the ruling Baath Party has a leading role.
GEOGRAPHY
Behind a well-watered coastal plain, mountains run from north to south, rising to Jabal ash Shaik (Mount Hermon) at 2814 m (9232 ft). Inland, much of the country is occupied by the Syrian Desert. Principal river: Euphrates (Al Furat) 2800 km (1740 mi). Climate: The coast has a Mediterranean climate. The arid interior has hot summers and cool winters.
ECONOMY
Petroleum is the main export, although Syrias petroleum reserves are small by Middle East standards. Agriculture involves 25% of the labor force, with farming concentrated in the coastal plain and irrigated land in the Euphrates Valley. Major crops include cotton, wheat and barley. Currency: Syrian pound.
HISTORY
Syria was an important part of the Hittite, Assyrian and Persian empires (see pp. 36465), before being conquered by Alexander the Great (332 bc). From 305 bc Syria was the center of the Seleucid Empire (see pp. 37273), and in 64 bc the area became a Roman province based on Antioch. The Byzantine Empire ruled the area (300634) until the Muslim armies of Khaled ibn al-Walid invaded the country. Most Syrians accepted Islam rapidly. In 661 Muawiyya, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty (see p. 392), established his capital in Damascus, and the city reached the zenith of its power. When the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty from Baghdad (750) Damascus pre-eminence ended.
From the 12th to the 14th century parts of coastal Syria were ruled by Crusader principalities (see p. 398). The Mamluks originally Turkish slaves ruled Syria from the 13th century until 1516, when the area was annexed by the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire. Ottoman rule was not ended until 1917, when a combined British-Arab army was led into Damascus. In 1920 independence was declared, but the victors of World War I handed Syria to France (1920) as a trust territory. From independence in 1946 until 1970 Syria suffered political instability. The pan-Arab, secular, socialist Baath Party engineered Syrias unsuccessful union with Egypt (195861). Syria fought wars with Israel in 194849, 1967 and 1973 (see pp. 45455), and in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War Israel captured the strategic Golan Heights from Syria. A pragmatic Baathist leader Hafiz Assad came to power in 1970 and allied Syria to the USSR. Assads popularity has been challenged by Syrias increasing involvement in Lebanon since 1976 and by Shiite fundamentalism. After 198990, economic pressures lessened Syrias dependence upon the USSR and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990 brought a more pragmatic phase to Syrias foreign relations. Syrias participation in the coalition against Iraq (199091) gained greater international acceptance for Syria, which had attracted criticism for sympathizing with terrorist groups.
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TAJIKIST
TAJIKISTAN
Official name: Jumhurii Tojikiston (Republic of Tajikistan)
Member of: UN, CIS, OSCE
Area: 143100 km2 (55300 sq mi)
Population: 5705000 (1993 est)
Capital: Dushanbe 592000 (1991 census)
Other major city: Khodzhent (Khujand; formerly Leninabad) 165000 (1991 census)
Language: Tajik (official; 59%), Uzbek (23%), Russian (10%)
Religion: Sunni Islam majority
GOVERNMENT
The constitution provides for the election of an 80-member Majlis (legislature ) and a President for four years.
GEOGRAPHY
The mountainous republic of Tajikistan lies within the Tien Shan range and part of the Pamirs. The highest point at 7495 m (24590 ft) is Mount Garmo, which was known as Pik Kommunizma (Communism Peak) when it was the highest mountain in the USSR. The most important lowland is the Fergana valley. Climate: High altitude and the countrys position deep in the interior of Asia combine to give most of Tajikistan a harsh continental climate. The Fergana valley has a subtropical climate.
ECONOMY
Cotton is the mainstay of the economy. Other agricultural interests include fruit, vegetables and raising cattle. Major natural resources include coal, natural gas, iron ore, oil, lead, zinc and hydroelectric-power potential. Industries include textiles and carpet-making. The economy, which remains centrally planned and largely state-owned, has been devastated by civil war. Tajikistan remains economically dependent upon Russia. Currency: Tajikistan uses Russian currency.
HISTORY
The Tajiks, who are an Iranian people, were included in the Persian Empire until the 8th century ad, when the Arabs extended their influence over the area. In the 13th century the Tajiks were overrun by the Mongols and became part of the empire of Tamerlane (Timur) and his dynasty. A period of Uzbek rule was ended when the Afghans invaded in the 18th century. In the 19th century most of the Tajiks owed allegiance to the (Uzbek) khan of Bukhara. The area was annexed by Tsarist Russia (186068). After the Russian Revolution (see p. 438), the area was reoccupied by the Soviet Red Army (1920), but Tajik revolts simmered from 1922 to 1931. Tajikistan became a Union Republic within the USSR in 1929, declared independence after the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (September 1991), and was internationally recognized when the Soviet Union was dissolved (December 1991). Since independence the country has been wracked by civil war between former Communists and Islamic fundamentalists.
Official names: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania (Swahili) or The United Republic of Tanzania
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAU
Area: 945087 km2 (364900 sq mi)
Population: 26540000 (1993 est)
Capitals: Dodoma legislative and official capital 204000, Dar es Salaam joint administrative capital 1361000 (1988 census)
Other major cities: Mwanza 223000, _Tanga 187000, Zanzibar 158000 (1988 census)
Languages: English (official), Swahili (90%; 9% as a first language), 120 local languages.
Religions: animist (40%), Sunni Islam (33%), Roman Catholic (20%)
GOVERNMENT
The President is elected by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term. The President appoints a Cabinet of Ministers and two Vice Presidents one is the President of Zanzibar, the other concurrently Prime Minister. The 244-member National Assembly comprises 119 members directly elected from the mainland, 50 members directly elected from Zanzibar, plus appointed and indirectly elected members. Zanzibar has its own legislature.
GEOGRAPHY
Zanzibar comprises three small islands. The mainland formerly Tanganyika comprises savannah plateau divided by rift valleys and a north-south mountain chain rising to Kilimanjaro at 5894 m (19340 ft), the highest point in Africa. Climate: Tanzania has a tropical climate, although the mountains are cooler.
ECONOMY
Subsistence farming involves over 80% of the labor force. Cash crops include coffee and cotton. Mineral resources include diamonds and gold. Currency: Tanzanian shilling.
HISTORY
The coast was explored by Arabs from the 8th century and the Portuguese from the 16th century. Zanzibar was an Omani possession from the 18th century, became an independent sultanate in 1856 and then a British protectorate (18901963). After independence in 1963 the sultan of Zanzibar was deposed in a radical left-wing coup. The mainland became the colony of German East Africa in 1884, the British trust territory of Tanganyika in 1919 and an independent state in 1961. President Julius Nyereres policies of self-reliance and egalitarian socialism were widely admired, but proved difficult to implement and were largely abandoned by the time he retired as President in 1985. In 1964 Tanganyika and Zanzibar united to form Tanzania. The country was effectively a one-party state from 1965 until 1992, when the principle of political pluralism was conceded.
Other major cities: Nakhon Ratchasima (Khorat) 278000, Songkhla 243000 (1990 census)
Language: Thai (official)
Religions: Buddhism (95%), Sunni Islam (4%)
GOVERNMENT
Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. The National Assembly comprises a non-political Senate whose 270 members are appointed and a 360-member House of Representatives elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The King appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House. The PM appoints a Cabinet of Ministers responsible to the House.
GEOGRAPHY
Central Thailand is a densely populated fertile plain. The mountainous north rises to Doi Inthanon at 2595 m (8514 ft). The infertile Khorat Plateau occupies the northeast, while the mountainous Isthmus of Kra joins southern Thailand to Malaysia. Principal river: Mekong 4350 km (2702 mi). Climate: Thailand has a subtropical climate with heavy monsoon rains from June to October, a cool season from October to March and a hot season from March to June.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves over two thirds of the labor force, mainly growing rice (a major export), tapioca and rubber. Tin and natural gas are the main natural resources. Manufacturing based on cheap labor is expanding and includes textiles, clothes, electrical and electronic engineering. Thailand achieved high economic growth rates throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Tourism is a major foreign-currency earner. Currency: Baht.
HISTORY
Before 1939 Thailand was known as Siam. The Thais originated in Yunnan (China) and moved south after the Mongol destruction of their kingdom, Nanchao (1253). The Thais seized the Khmer (Cambodian) city Sukhotai, making it the center of a new kingdom. After 1350 based on the city of Ayutthaya Thai rulers consolidated their hold on south Siam and the Malay peninsula. Centuries of warfare with Burma, Laos and Cambodia did not prevent Siam from becoming the most powerful state in Southeast Asia, and the adroit diplomacy of its rulers enabled it to remain free of European colonization. Rama I (reigned 17821809), founder of the present dynasty, moved the capital to Bangkok. His successors were forced to cede their claims over neighboring lands to Britain and France.
A constitutional monarchy was established by a bloodless coup (1932), whose Westernized leaders (Pibul Songgram and Pridi Phanomyang) struggled for political dominance for the next quarter of a century. During World War II Thailand was forced into an alliance with Japan. Since then Thailand has made a decisive commitment to the US political camp, which has brought major benefits in military and technical aid. Despite continuing army interventions in politics, Thailand has prospered. However, the stability of the country was compromised by the wars in Vietnam (see pp. 45253) and by the continuing Cambodian conflict (until 1991), as Cambodian refugees and guerrillas remained in Thai border regions.
Languages: French, Ewe (47%), Kabiye (22%) all official
Religions: animist (50%), Roman Catholic (26%), Sunni Islam (15%)
GOVERNMENT
The President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The 81-member National Assembly is also directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Inland from a narrow coastal plain is a series of plateau rising in the north to the Chaine du Togo, including Pic Baumann at 983 m (3225 ft). Climate: Togo has a hot and humid tropical climate, although the north is drier.
ECONOMY
The majority of the labor force is involved in subsistence farming, with yams and millet as the principal crops. Phosphates are the main export. Currency: CFA franc.
HISTORY
Colonized by Germany in 1884, Togoland was occupied by Franco-British forces in World War I, after which it was divided between them as trust territories. British Togoland became part of Ghana; the French section gained independence as Togo in 1960, and subsequently relations with Ghana have been strained. Togo has experienced great political instability and several coups. A multi-party system was restored in the 1990s, but civil unrest has persisted owing to continued military intervention in political life.
Official name: Puleanga Fakatuio Tonga (The Kingdom of Tonga)
Member of: Commonwealth
Area: 780 km2 (301 sq mi)
Population: 99000 (1993 est)
Capital: Nukualofa 28900 (1986 est)
Languages: Tongan and English (both official)
Religions: Methodist (43%; official), Roman Catholic (16%)
GOVERNMENT
Tonga is a constitutional monarchy. The King appoints a Prime Minister and other Ministers to the Privy Council, which acts as a Cabinet. The 31-member Legislative Assembly comprises the King, the Privy Council, 9 hereditary nobles (chosen by their peers) and 9 representatives of the people elected for three years by universal adult suffrage. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
The 172 Tongan islands 36 of which are inhabited comprise a low limestone chain in the east and a higher volcanic chain in the west. Climate: The climate is warm with heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves most Tongans. Yams, cassava and taro are grown as subsistence crops. Coconut products are the main exports. Currency: Paanga.
HISTORY
Inhabited by Polynesians for over 3000 years (see p. 389), Tonga has been ruled by kings since the 10th century. European intervention began when Captain Cook visited Tonga (177377). Civil war in the first half of the 19th century was ended by King George Tupou I (reigned 184593), who reunited Tonga, preserved its independence and gave it a modern constitution. From 1900 to 1970 Tonga was a British protectorate. Since 1987 pressure for constitutional reform has increased.
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TRINIDAD
TRINIDAD AND
TOBAGO
Official name: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, CARICOM, OAS
Area: 5128 km2 (1980 sq mi)
Population: 1249000 (1993 est)
Capital: Port of Spain 51 000 (1990 census)
Languages: English (official), Hindu (25%)
Religions: Roman Catholic (34%), Hinduism (25%), Anglican (15%), Sunni Islam (6%)
GOVERNMENT
The 31-member Senate the Upper House of Parliament is appointed by the President, who is elected by a joint sitting of Parliament. The 36-member House of Representatives is elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the House. The PM, in turn, appoints a Cabinet, which is responsible to the House. Tobago has full internal self-government.
GEOGRAPHY
Trinidad is generally low-lying and undulating, although the Northern Range rises to 940 m (3085 ft). Tobago is more mountainous. Climate: Trinidad has a humid tropical climate, with a dry season from January to May.
ECONOMY
Petroleum and petrochemicals are the mainstay of the economy. Trinidad also has important reserves of natural gas and asphalt. Tourism is a major foreign-currency earner. Currency: Trinidad and Tobago dollar.
HISTORY
Trinidad was inhabited by Arawak Indians and Tobago by Carib Indians when Columbus discovered them in 1498. Trinidad was neglected by Spain and became British in 1797. Tobago was claimed by the Spanish, Dutch, French and Courland (modern Latvia) before being ceded to Britain in 1802. African slaves were imported to work sugar plantations, but after the abolition of slavery in the 1830s, laborers came from India. The islands merged as a single colony in 1899 and gained independence in 1962 under Dr Eric Williams. His moderate policies brought economic benefits but provoked a Black Power revolt and an army mutiny in 1970. The country has been a republic since 1976. In 1990 a small group of Islamic fundamentalists attempted a coup.
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TUNISIA
TUNISIA
Official name: Al-Jumhuriya at-Tunisiya (Republic of Tunisia)
Other major cities: Sfax (Safaqis) 222000, Sousse (Susah) 102000 (1989 est)
Languages: Arabic (official), Berber minority
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; 99%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and the 163-member National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term. The President appoints a Cabinet, headed by a Prime Minister.
GEOGRAPHY
The Northern Tell and the High Tell mountains rise to 1544 m (5066 ft) at Jabal ash-Shanabi. Wide plateau cover central Tunisia. The Sahara Desert lies south of a zone of shallow salt lakes. Climate: The north has a Mediterranean climate with adequate rainfall. The south has a hot dry climate.
ECONOMY
Phosphates and petroleum are the mainstay of the economy. The main crops are wheat, barley and vegetables, plus olives and citrus fruit for export. Tourism is a major foreign-currency earner. Unemployment is a major problem and many Tunisians seek work in Europe. Currency: Tunisian dinar.
HISTORY
The Phoenicians founded Carthage (near Tunis) in the 8th century bc, and the city built up an empire dominating the Western Mediterranean. After the Punic Wars (see p. 376) Rome ruled the region from 146 bc until it fell to the Byzantine Empire in ad 533. In 647, an Arab invasion won Tunisia for the Islamic world and for over 900 years the area was disputed by a variety of Muslim dynasties. From 1574 to 1881 Tunisia was part of the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire. In 1881 France established a protectorate, although the bey (monarch) remained the nominal ruler. Nationalist sentiments grew in the 20th century. Tunisia was occupied by the Germans (194243). Independence was gained under Habib Bourguiba (1903 ) in 1956 and the monarchy was abolished (1957). In the late 1980s the regime became increasingly unpopular and intolerant of opposition. Since Bourguiba was deposed by his PM (1988) because of incapacity multi-party politics have been permitted.
Capital: Ankara 3022000 (city 2560000; 1990 census)
Other major cities: Istanbul 6620000 (city 6293000), Izmir 2665000 (city 2319000), Adana 1430000 (city 972000), Bursa 1031000 (city 775000), Konya 1015000 (city 543000), Gaziantep 760000 (city 574000) (1990 census)
Languages: Turkish (86%; official); Kurdish (under 15%). There is no agreement regarding the size of the Kurdish population in Turkey; some sources claim that 20% of Turkeys population is Kurdish.
Religions: Sunni Islam (67%), Shia Islam (30%), various Christian Churches (3%)
GOVERNMENT
The 450-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The President who is elected by the Assembly for seven years appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet commanding a majority in the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
Turkey west of the Dardanelles 5% of the total area is part of Europe. Asiatic Turkey consists of the central Anatolian Plateau and its basins, bordered to the north by the Pontic Mountains, to the south by the Taurus Mountains, and to the east by high ranges rising to Agridagi (Mount Ararat) at 5185 m (17 011 ft). Principal rivers: Euphrates (Firat) 1900 km (1180 mi), Tigris (Dicle) 2800 km (1740 mi). Climate: The coastal regions have a Mediterranean climate. The interior is continental with hot, dry summers and cold, snowy winters.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves one half of the labor force. Major crops include wheat, rice, tobacco, and cotton. Both tobacco and cotton have given rise to important processing industries, and textiles are Turkeys main export. Manufacturing in particular the chemical and steel industries has grown rapidly. Natural resources include copper and coal. Unemployment is severe. Money sent back by the large number of Turks working in Western Europe is a major source of foreign currency. Tourism is increasingly important. Currency: Turkish lira.
HISTORY
The Hittite empire was founded around 1650 bc (see p. 364), and quickly gained control of all of Anatolia (present-day Turkey), spread to north Syria and later came into conflict with the Egyptians. By the 6th century bc (Persian) Achaemenid power was expanding into Anatolia (see p. 365). However, in 334 bc Alexander the Great crossed into Asia and destroyed the Achaemenid Empire (see p. 372). Anatolia was divided into several Hellenistic states until the Roman Empire took control of the area (133 bc). In ad 330 Emperor Constantine established the new city of Constantinople (now Istanbul), which became capital of the Byzantine Empire (see pp. 381 and 39495).
In the 11th century the Muslim Seljuk Turks occupied most of Anatolia. In the 13th century the Seljuks were replaced by the Ottoman Turks, who by the end of the 14th century had conquered most of the Balkans. In 1453 the Christian Byzantine Empire fell with the loss of Constantinople, which became the Ottoman capital. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 152066), the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire extended from the Danube to Aden and Eritrea, and from the Euphrates and the Crimea to Algiers (see p. 393). However, from that time the empire began a long decline in military and political might and in extent. The Ottoman Empire came to be regarded as the sick man of Europe, and the future of the empire and its Balkan territories troubled the 19th century as the Eastern Question (see p. 429). In 1908 the Young Turks revolt attempted to stop the decline, but defeat in the Balkan Wars (191213) virtually expelled Turkey from Europe.
Alliance with Germany in World War I ended in defeat and the loss of all non-Turkish areas. The future of Turkey in Asia itself seemed in doubt when Greece took the area around Izmir and the Allies defined zones of influence. General Mustafa Kemal (18811938) later known as Atat
rk (father of the Turks) led forces of resistance in a civil war and went on to defeat Greece. Turkeys present boundaries were established in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne. With the abolition of the sultanate (1922) Turkey became a republic, which Atat
rk transformed into a secular Westernized state. Islam was disestablished, Arabic script was replaced by the Latin alphabet, the Turkish language was revived, and womens veils were banned.
Soviet claims on Turkish territory in 1945 encouraged a pro-Western outlook, and in 1952 Turkey joined NATO. PM Adnan Menderes was overthrown by a military coup in 1960 and hanged on charges of corruption and unconstitutional rule. Civilian government was restored in 1961, but a pattern of violence and ineffective government led to a further army takeover in 1980. In 1974, after President Makarios was overthrown in Cyprus by a Greek-sponsored coup, Turkey invaded the island and set up a Turkish administration in the north (1975). Differences with Greece over Cyprus have damaged the countrys attempts to join the EC, as has the countrys record on human rights. In 1983 civilian rule replaced the military government. Since then Turkey has drawn as close as possible to Western Europe, although the emergence of Islamic fundamentalism since the late 1980s has raised doubts concerning Turkeys European identity.
Following the exodus of Iraqi Kurdish refugees into Turkey (1991), unrest among Turkeys ethnic Kurds intensified.# A Kurdish terrorist movement has been active not only in Turkey but also in Europe, where Turkish diplomatic and other offices have been targets. There has been international criticism of the actions of Turkish forces in containing this violence.
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TURKMENI
TURKMENISTAN
Official name: Tiurkmenostan (Turkmenistan)
Member of: UN, CIS, OSCE
Area: 488100 km2 (188500 sq mi)
Population: 4295000 (1993 est)
Capital: Ashkhabad (Ashgabat) 416000 (1991 est)
Other major city: Chardzhou (Charjew) 166000 (1991 est)
Languages: Turkmen (72%), Russian (9%), Uzbek (9%)
Religion: Sunni Islam majority
GOVERNMENT
A 50-member legislature (Majlis) and a President are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
The sandy Kara-Kum Desert occupies the center of the republic, over 90% of which is desert. The Kopet Dag mountains form the border with Iran. Climate: Turkmenistan has a continental climate characterized by hot summers, freezing winters and very low precipitation.
ECONOMY
Turkmenistan is rich in oil and natural gas. Industries include engineering, metal processing and textiles. Collective farms grow cotton under irrigation and raise sheep, camels and horses. The economy remains largely state-owned and centrally planned, although reforms began in 1993. Currency: Manat.
HISTORY
The Turkmens are a nomadic Turkic people who were nominally subject to Persia, or to the khans of Khiva and Bukhara (now both in Uzbekistan), before coming under Russian rule between 1869 and 1881. The Turkmens fiercely resisted the Russians and rose in revolt in 1916. An autonomous Transcaspian government was formed after the Russian Revolution (see p. 438), and the area was not brought under Soviet control until the Red Army invaded in 1919. The Turkmen territories were reorganized and eventually admitted as a full Union Republic of the USSR in 1925. Independence was declared following the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow, and the republic received international recognition when the USSR was dissolved (1991). Since independence, opposition has been curtailed and President Niyazov has been the object of a growing personality cult.
Capital: Fongafale on Funafuti atoll 3400 (1990 est)
Languages: Tuvaluan and English
Religion: Protestant Church of Tuvalu (98%)
GOVERNMENT
The 12-member Parliament which is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years chooses a Prime Minister who appoints other Ministers. A Governor General represents the British Queen as sovereign of Tuvalu. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
Tuvalu comprises nine small islands whose highest point is only 6 m (20 ft) above sea level. Climate: Tuvalu experiences high temperatures and heavy rainfall 30004000 mm (120160 in).
ECONOMY
Subsistence farming based on coconuts, pigs and poultry involves most of the labor force. The only export is copra from coconuts. Currency: Tuvalu dollar.
HISTORY
Tuvalu was settled from Samoa or Tonga in the 14th century. Although the islands were sighted by 16th-century Spanish navigators, European settlement did not begin until the early 19th century. Claimed for Britain in 1892 as the Ellice Islands, the territory became linked administratively with the Gilbert Islands. A referendum in 1974 showed a majority of Polynesians in the Ellice Islands in favor of separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati). Independence was achieved as Tuvalu in 1978.
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UGANDA
UGANDA
Official name: The Republic of Uganda
Member of: UN, Commonwealth, OAU
Area: 241139 km2 (93104 sq mi)
Population: 16583000 (1991 census)
Capital: Kampala 773000 (1991 census)
Other major cities: Jinja 61000, Mbale 54000 (1991 census)
Languages: English and Swahili (both official), with local languages including Luganda
Religions: Roman Catholic (45%), animist (32%), various Protestant Churches (17%), Sunni Islam (6%)
GOVERNMENT
Elections were held in 1994 for a 288-member (constituent) Assembly comprising 214 members elected by universal adult suffrage, 10 members nominated by the President, 56 members nominated by special interest groups (trade unions, womens organizations, etc.) and eight members nominated by the four principal political parties in operation before parties were banned in 1988. The President, who is elected by the Assembly for five years, appoints a Prime Minister and other Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Uganda is a plateau. This ends in the west at the Great Rift Valley and the Ruwenzori Mountains, rising to Ngaliema at 5118 m (16 763 ft). Lake Victoria covers southeast Uganda. Principal river: Nile 6648 km (4132 mi). Climate: Ugandas tropical climate is moderated by its altitude.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves over 75% of the labor force; coffee accounts for 90% of Ugandas exports. Subsistence crops include plantains, cassava and sweet potatoes. Instability has damaged the economy. Currency: Uganda shilling.
HISTORY
The British protectorate of Uganda established in 1894 was built around the powerful African kingdom of Buganda, whose continuing special status contributed to the disunity that has plagued the country since independence in 1962. Dr Milton Obote, who suppressed the Buganda monarchy in 1966, was overthrown in a coup by General Idi Amin in 1971. Amin earned international criticism when political and human rights were curtailed, opponents of the regime were murdered and the Asian population was expelled. The army took over in 1979, supported by Tanzanian troops. Obote was restored but was ousted in a military coup in 1985, since when instability and guerrilla action have continued.# In 1994, a constituent assembly was called and the traditional kingdoms, including Buganda, were revived. In some rural areas, AIDS has devastated the population.
Religions: Orthodox majority Ukrainian Autocephalous and Russian; Ukrainian Uniat (Roman Catholic; largest denomination)
GOVERNMENT
A 450-member legislature is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. Voting is conducted in three rounds and to be successful, in either of the first two rounds, candidates must have an overall majority. The President who appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers is directly elected for five years.
GEOGRAPHY
Most of Ukraine after Russia, the largest country in Europe comprises plains (steppes), interrupted by low plateau and basins. The north includes part of the Pripet Marshes; the south is a coastal lowland beside the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Central Ukraine comprises the Dnepr Lowland and the Dnepr Plateau, the most extensive upland in the republic. Eastern Ukraine comprises the Don Valley and part of the Central Russian Upland. The most diverse scenery is in the west, where an extensive lowland stretches into Hungary and the Carpathian Mountains rise to 2061 m (6762 ft) at Mount Hoverla. The Crimean Peninsula consists of parallel mountain ridges and fertile valleys. Climate: The Crimean Peninsula has a Mediterranean climate. The rest of Ukraine is temperate. Winters are milder and summers are cooler in the west. Snowfall is heaviest in the north and the Carpathians. Rainfall is moderate, usually with a summer maximum.
ECONOMY
Ukraine was known as the bread basket of the USSR. Large collectivized farms on the steppes grow cereals, fodder crops and vegetables. Potatoes and flax are important in the north; fruit farming (including grapes and market gardening) is widespread, particularly in the Crimea. Natural resources include iron ore, oil, manganese and rock salt, but the vast Donets coalfield is the principal base of Ukraines industries. The Ukrainian iron and steel industry was almost as large as that of Russia. Other major industries include consumer goods, heavy engineering (railway locomotives, shipbuilding, generators), food processing, and chemicals and chemical equipment. Within the USSR, Ukraine had surpluses of electricity, cereals and many industrial goods. The economy has been almost untouched by reform since the break-up of the USSR. Production has fallen; the country faces a huge energy deficit, rampant inflation and declining industries and standards of living. Currency: Karbovanets.
HISTORY
Greek colonies flourished on the Crimean coast from about the 7th century bc. The earliest known homeland of the Slavs is thought to be in the north foothills of the Carpathians in Ukraine, from whence the East Slavs migrated towards the Dnepr valley during the first millennium bc. The state of Rus, centered on Kiev, is the common ancestor of both Russia and Ukraine. It developed from the 9th century on the trade route linking the Baltic with the Black Sea. Its first princes were of Viking origin, though its population was largely East Slav. In ad 988, Grand Prince Volodymyr (Vladimir) of Kiev established Orthodox Christianity in Rus. Kiev subsequently declined and was wrecked by the invasion of the Tatars (123741), but other powerful centers grew to the west in Galicia. These centers came under Polish rule in the 14th century when both Poland and Lithuania extended south and east into the steppes on their border (from which is derived the original name u krajina, on the border).
Polish influence increased in Ukraine, particularly after the formal union of Poland and Lithuania (1569), but Polish landowners and administrators were resented by the Ukrainians, who were reduced to serfdom. In the 16th century, Poland encouraged the foundation in Ukraine of autonomous colonies of Cossacks Slavic warrior-peasants who formed mercenary cavalry forces to act as buffers against Tatar invasions. However, the Cossacks grew overstrong and challenged the Poles, most seriously in the 164851 rebellion, when the Cossacks requested assistance from the Russian tsar. Two Russo-Polish wars followed and in 1660 Ukraine was partitioned between Poland and Russia. The Ottoman Turks occupied Polish Ukraine from 1672 to 1699. Tsarist Russia suppressed the autonomy of the Cossacks in 1775 and reunited most of Ukraine under Russian rule (1793) in the second partition of Poland.
In 1876 Russia banned the use of the Ukrainian language in schools and in print. However, the Ukrainian nationalist movement continued in the more liberal atmosphere of Galicia in the west, which had been annexed by Austria in the first partition of Poland (1772). The Ukrainians in Russia took the opportunity afforded by World War I and the Russian Revolution to proclaim independence (1918), but a Ukrainian Soviet government was established in Kharkov. Ukraine united with Galicia when the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed. The new state was invaded by Poland in pursuit of territorial claims and by the Soviet Red Army in support of the Kharkov Soviet. The Red Army prevailed and in 1922 Ukraine became one of the founding republics of the USSR, but the Lvov district of Galicia remained in Polish hands.
From 1928, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin instituted purges in Ukraine and a new program of Russification. After World War II when Ukraine was occupied by Nazi Germany Soviet Ukraine was enlarged by the addition of Lvov (from Poland), Bukovina (from Romania), and Ruthenia (from Czechoslovakia), and finally, in 1954, Crimea (from Russia). Ukrainian nationalism was spurred by the perceived Soviet indifference to Ukraine at the time of the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, north of Kiev, in 1986. Ukrainian politicians responded to the restructuring of the USSR in the late 1980s by seeking increased autonomy. The decision of the republic to declare independence following the abortive coup by Communist hardliners in Moscow (September 1991) hastened the demise of the USSR. Ukraine gained international recognition in December 1991 when the Soviet Union was dissolved, but tension remained between Moscow and Kiev concerning the allegiance of Soviet forces in Ukraine, and the status of Crimea and the Black Sea fleet.# Ukraines economic collapse since independence increased the separatist feelings of the Russian majority in eastern Ukraine and in Crimea.
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UNITED_A
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Official name: Al-Imarat AlArabiya Al-Muttahida (The United Arab Emirates)
Member of: UN, Arab League, OPEC, GCC
Area: 83600 km2 (32280 sq mi)
Population: 1990000 (1993 est)
Capital: Abu Dhabi 363000 (1989 est)
Other major cities: Dubai 585000, alAyn 176000, Sharjah 125000 (1989 est)
Languages: Arabic (official; 20-25%); English (commercial); various languages of the Indian subcontinent (70%); Iranian
Religion: Sunni Islam (official; majority)
GOVERNMENT
The hereditary absolute rulers of the seven emirates Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, Umm al-Qaiwain form the Supreme Council of Rulers. The Supreme Council elects one of its members as President, who appoints a Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Supreme Council also appoints a 40-member advisory Federal National Council for two years. There are no political parties.
GEOGRAPHY
The country is a low-lying desert except in the east, where the Jajar Mountains rise to 1189 m (3901 ft). Climate: Summer temperatures exceed 40
C (104
F); winter temperatures are milder. Rainfall is very low.
ECONOMY
Based upon the export of offshore and onshore reserves of petroleum and natural gas, the country has one of the highest standards of living in the world. Dry docks, fertilizer factories, commercial banking interests, international airports and an entrep
t trade have been developed. Immigrants from the Indian subcontinent and Iran form the majority of the labor force. Agriculture is confined to oases and a few coastal sites irrigated by desalinated water. Currency: Dirham.
HISTORY
The Gulf tribes were converted to Islam in the 7th century ad. When the Portuguese occupied some ports in the 16th century, the region was prosperous, but economic decline followed, coinciding with the (Turkish) Ottoman conquest. A political vacuum in the mid-18th century was filled by the British, who saw the region as a link in the trade route to India. Treaties (truces) were signed with local rulers during the 19th century, bringing the Trucial States under British protection. In 1958 oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi. When the British withdrew in 1971 the Trucial States formed the United Arab Emirates.#
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UNITED_K
UNITED KINGDOM
Official name: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Member of: UN, EU/EC, NATO, G7, OECD, OSCE, WEU, Commonwealth
Area: 244088 km2 (94242 sq mi)
Population: 58080000 (1993 est)
Capital: London (see below)
Languages: English (over 98% as a first language), various languages of the Indian subcontinent (under 2% as a first language), Welsh (0.05%), Gaelic (0.014%)
Religions: Anglican (55% nominal; 4% practising), Roman Catholic (9%), Presbyterian (3%, including Church of Scotland), Methodist (2%), various other Christian Churches (4%), Sunni Islam (2%)
ENGLAND
Area: 130439 km2 (50 363 sq mi)
Population: 47 837 300 (1992 est)
Capital: London 7926000 (London Urban Area; Greater London 6803000; 1992 est)
Other major cities: Birmingham 2360000 (West Midlands Urban Area; city 1009000; Dudley 305000; Walsall 263000; Wolverhampton 248000; Solihull 201000), Manchester 2337000 (Greater Manchester Urban Area; city 43500; Stockport 289000; Bolton 264000; Salford 230000; Oldham 220000; Rochdale 206000), Leeds-Bradford 1581000 (West Yorkshire Urban Area; Leeds 772000, Bradford 478000), Newcastle-upon-Tyne 797000 (Tyneside Urban Area; city 282000; Gateshead 203000), Liverpool 690000 (Urban Area; city 479000), Sheffield 673000 (Urban Area; city 531000), Nottingham 631000 (Urban Area; city 283000), Bristol 568000 (Urban Area; city 397000), Brighton 495000 (Brighton-Worthing Urban Area; Brighton town 155000), Portsmouth 476000 (Urban Area; city 190000), Leicester 423000 (Urban Area; city 285000), Stoke-on-Trent 389000 (The Potteries Urban Area; city 253000), Middlesbrough 380000 (Teesside Urban Area; town 146000), Bournemouth 376000 (Urban Area; town 159000), Coventry 348000 (Urban Area; city 305000), Hull 331000 (Kingston-upon-Hull Urban Area; city 269000), Southampton 322000 (Southampton-Eastleigh Urban Area; city 208000), Preston 320000 (Urban Area; town 131000), Southend 299000 (Urban Area; town 165000), Blackpool 293000 (Urban Area; town 152000), Birkenhead 279000 (Wirral Urban Area; town 99000), Plymouth 258000 (Urban Area and city), Rochester 247000 (Medway Towns Urban Area; city 148000) (figures are for urban areas cities and their agglomerations not for local government areas; 1992 est)
NORTHERN IRELAND
Area: 14122 km2 (5453 sq mi) of which 13483 km2 (5205 sq mi) is land
Other major towns and cities: Derry/Londonderry 96000, Craigavon-Portadown-Lisburn 77000, Bangor 35000 (figures are for urban areas towns and their agglomerations not for local government areas; 1992 est)
SCOTLAND
Area: 78 759 km2 (30409 sq mi)
Population: 5111000 (1992 est)
Capital: Edinburgh 527000 (Urban Area; city 439000; 1992 est)
Other major towns and cities: Glasgow 1648000 (Central Clydeside Urban Area; city 684000; Motherwell 144000; Paisley 84000; Hamilton 52000), Aberdeen 231000 (Urban Area; city 217000), Dundee 172000 (Urban Area and city), Greenock 91000 (Urban Area; town 58000), Falkirk 74000 (Urban Area; town 36000), Ayr 62000 (Urban Area; town 52000) (figures are for urban areas towns and their agglomerations not for local government areas; 1992 est)
WALES
Area: 20768 km2 (8019 sq mi)
Population: 2899000 (1992 est)
Capital: Cardiff 326000 (Urban Area; city 296000; 1992 est)
Other major towns and cities: Swansea 289000 (Urban Area; city 188000), Newport 137000 (Urban Area and town), Rhondda-Pontypridd 128000 (Urban Area; Rhondda 79000), Wrexham 80000 (Urban Area; town 40000), Merthyr Tydfil 60000 (Urban Area and town), Aberdare 55000 (Urban Area; town 32000), Pontypool 50000 (Urban Area; town 36000), Bridgend 50000 (Urban Area; town 31000) (figures are for urban areas towns and their agglomerations not for local government areas; 1992 est)
DEPENDENCIES
Crown Dependencies associated with but not part of the UK (with areas, populations and capitals):
Guernsey and Dependencies (Alderney and Sark) 78.5 km2 (30 sq mi), 61600 (1991 census), St Peter Port.
Isle of Man 572 km2 (221 sq mi), 70000 (1991 census), Douglas.
Jersey 116 km2 (45 sq mi), 84000 (1991 census), St Helier.
Dependencies (with areas, populations and capitals):
Anguilla 96 km2 (37 sq mi), 9000 (1992 est), The Valley.
Bermuda 54 km2 (21 sq mi), 60500 (1991 est), Hamilton.
British Antarctic Territory 1800000 km2 (700000 sq mi); no permanent population.
British Indian Ocean Territory 60 km2 (23 sq mi); no permanent civilian population.
British Virgin Islands 153 km2 (59 sq mi), 16700 (1991 census), Road Town.
Cayman Islands 259 km2 (100 sq mi), 27000 (1989 census), George Town.
Falkland Islands 12 170 km2 (4698 sq mi), 2100 (1991 census; excluding military personnel), Port Stanley.
Gibraltar 6.5 km2 (2.5 sq mi), 31300 (1990 est), Gibraltar.
Hong Kong 1045 km2 (403 sq mi), 6019000 (1993 est), Victoria.
Montserrat 98 km2 (38 sq mi), 12400 (1989 est), Plymouth.
St Helena and Dependencies (Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) 411 km2 (159 sq mi), 7100 (1992 est), Jamestown.
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands 4091 km2 (1580 sq mi), no permanent population.
Turks and Caicos Islands 430 km2 (166 sq mi), 12400 (1990 census), Cockburn Town.
GOVERNMENT
The UK is a constitutional monarchy without a written constitution. The House of Lords the Upper (non-elected) House of Parliament comprises over 750 hereditary peers and peeresses, over 20 Lords of Appeal (non-hereditary peers), over 370 life peers, and 2 archbishops and 24 bishops of the Church of England. The House of Commons consists of 651 members elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The sovereign appoints a Prime Minister who commands a majority in the Commons. (see p. 267).
GEOGRAPHY
The UK comprises the island of Great Britain, the northeast part of Ireland plus over 4000 other islands. Lowland Britain occupies the south, east and center of England. Clay valleys and river basins including those of the Thames and the Trent separate relatively low ridges of hills, including the limestone Cotswolds and Cleveland Hills, and the chalk North and South Downs and the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Wolds. In the east, low-lying Fenland is largely reclaimed marshland. The flat landscape of East Anglia is covered by glacial soils. The northwest coastal plain of Lancashire and Cheshire is the only other major lowland in England. A peninsula in the southwest Devon and Cornwall contains granitic uplands, including Dartmoor and Exmoor. The limestone Pennines form a moorland backbone running through northern England. The Lake District (Cumbria) is a mountainous dome rising to Scafell Pike, the highest point in England at 978 m (3210 ft).
Wales is a highland block, formed by a series of plateau above which rise the Brecon Beacons in the south, Cader Idris and the Berwyn range in the center, and Snowdonia in the north, where Snowdon reaches 1085 m (3560 ft).
In Scotland, the Highlands in the north and the Southern Uplands are separated by the rift valley of the Central Lowlands, where the majority of Scotlands population, agriculture and industry are to be found. The Highlands are divided by the Great Glen in which lies Loch Ness. Although Ben Nevis is the highest point at 1392 m (4406 ft), the most prominent range of the Highlands is the Cairngorm Mountains. The Southern Uplands lie below 853 m (2800 ft). Scottish lowlands include Buchan in the northeast, Caithness in the north and a coastal plain around the Moray Firth. To the west of Scotland are the many islands of the Inner and Outer Hebrides, while to the north are the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
Uplands in Northern Ireland include the Sperrin Mountains in the northwest, the uplands in County Antrim, and the Mourne Mountains rising to Slieve Donard at 852 m (2796 ft). Lough Neagh at the center of Northern Ireland is the UKs largest lake.
Principal rivers: Severn 345 km (220 mi), Thames (with Churn) 346 km (215 mi), Trent-Humber 297 km (185 mi), Aire (with Ouse) 259 km (161 mi).
Climate: The temperate climate of the UK is warmed by the North Atlantic Drift. There is considerable local variety, particularly in rainfall totals, which range from just over 500 mm (20 in) in the southeast to 5000 mm (200 in) in northwest Scotland.
ECONOMY
About one sixth of the British labor force is involved in manufacturing. The principal industries include iron and steel, motor vehicles, electronics and electrical engineering, textiles and clothing, and consumer goods. British industry relies heavily upon imports of raw materials. The UK is self-sufficient in petroleum (from the North Sea) and has important reserves of natural gas. The coal industry declined as seams became uneconomic. As Britain is a major trading nation, London is one of the worlds leading banking, financial and insurance centers, and the invisible earnings from these services make an important contribution to exports. Tourism is another major foreign-currency earner. Agriculture involves about 1% of the labor force and is principally concerned with raising sheep and cattle. Arable farming is widespread in the east, where the main crops are barley, wheat, potatoes and sugar beet. Economic problems have included repeated crises of confidence in the value of the pound, credit squeezes and high rates of unemployment. Since 1980 most major nationalized industries have been privatized. Currency: Pound sterling.
HISTORY
Pre-Roman Britain was inhabited by the Celts (see pp. 37475). Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 5554 bc, although wholesale conquest and Romanization did not occur until after ad 43. The Roman province of Britannia covering the area south of Hadrians Wall (see p. 378) lasted until the 5th century ad. The Scots from northeast Ireland invaded north Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries (see p. 396), and when their king also became king of the Picts (843) the foundations of a Scottish state were laid. From the 6th century, Wales was divided into small kingdoms, which by the 12th century had been reduced to Gywnedd (in the north), Powys (center) and Deheubarth (the south). The Anglo-Saxons first invaded England in the 5th century, and by the 7th and 8th centuries had established a fluctuating number of kingdoms (see pp. 39697). Mercia and Northumbria were dominant until the rise of Wessex to supremacy in the 9th century, and in the 950s King Edgar of Wessex united England. However, from the 8th century Vikings raided the country (see p. 397), and, although partly repulsed by King Alfred in the 9th century, they established kingdoms in the east. After the short-lived Anglo-Danish kingdom of Cnut and his sons, the Normans invaded in 1066 (see p. 397).
The Normans established a strong centralized monarchy. At first England was just part of the Anglo-Norman state, but soon became the dominant force in an empire that included much of France. Throughout the Middle Ages England waged war to retain possessions in France (see pp. 40001). Scotland came increasingly under English influence from the 11th century, and Edward I (reigned 12721307) attempted to dominate Scotland at a time of disputed succession. After the Battle of Bannockburn (1314), Scottish independence was asserted by Robert the Bruce (reigned 130629), whose grandson was the first Stewart (Stuart) king of Scotland. Henry II of England (reigned 115489) became overlord of Ireland in 1171, but English control of the north was limited until Protestant settlers arrived in great numbers in the 16th and 17th centuries. Wales was gradually absorbed by England, despite the attempt by Llywelyn II of Gwynedd to establish an independent Welsh nation in the 13th century.
In the Middle Ages succession to the English throne was often contested, most notably in the civil war between the Houses of York and Lancaster (the Wars of the Roses, 145585). The development of the English state was aided by the emergence of the Houses of Parliament, but conflicts between the Crown and overmighty nobles were common. In 1215 King John (reigned 11991216) was forced to grant considerable powers to the nobles. By the time Henry VII (reigned 14851509) seized the throne to establish the Tudor dynasty the numbers and strength of the nobility were diminished, and England was poised to emerge as a leading power. Under Henry VIII (reigned 150947) the English Reformation began (see p. 412). Under his daughter Elizabeth I (reigned 15581603) a religious settlement was achieved and the countrys colonial history began when English explorers challenged Spain in the New World (see p. 413).
The succession of James VI of Scotland as James I of England in 1603 united the crowns of the two realms, although full integration did not occur until Scotlands Parliament was abolished by the Act of Union in 1707. Under Charles I (reigned 162549) the English Civil War (164060) was prompted by arguments over the precise nature of the Protestant religion to which his subjects should adhere, as much as by conflicts over parliamentary rights (see pp. 41213). After the Commonwealth (164960), the restored Charles II (reigned 166085) attempted to establish an absolutist monarchy. The efforts of James II to reimpose Catholicism ended in his flight and the invasion of William (III) of Orange (reigned 16881702) in the Glorious Revolution (see p. 413). William III and his successor Queen Anne (reigned 170214) fought the ambitions of Louis XIV of France (see pp. 41415), and an involvement in European wars continued after the (German) Hanoverian monarchs came to the throne in 1714. Colonial wars against the Dutch in the 17th century and the French in the 18th century (see p. 417) saw a notable expansion of the British Empire. The American colonies were lost in 1783 (see pp. 42223), although Canada and West Indian islands were retained. As if to compensate for the loss, British interest turned almost simultaneously to India, where much of the subcontinent had come under the sway of the East India Company (see p. 417). The United Kingdom formed in 1801 through the union of Great Britain and Ireland fought almost continuous wars against Revolutionary and Napoleonic France (17891815; see pp. 42627), and emerged from the wars with further colonial gains.
The reign of Queen Victoria (18371901) witnessed the height of British power. Britain the first country to undergo an industrial revolution (see pp. 42021) dominated world trade. British statesmen including PMs Sir Robert Peel (17881850), Lord Palmerston (17841865), William Ewart Gladstone (180998) and Benjamin Disraeli (180481) dominated the world stage. The British Empire included much of Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Australasia (see pp. 43233). Parliamentary democracy increased with the gradual extension of the right to vote, starting with the Reform Act of 1832. Representative government was granted to distant colonies, beginning with Canada and Australia, but was denied to Ireland, where nationalist sentiment was stirring. By 1900 Britains economic dominance was being challenged by the USA and, more particularly, by Germany. Rivalry with Imperial Germany was but one factor contributing to the causes of World War I (see pp. 43637). PM Herbert Asquith (18521928) led a reforming Liberal Government from 1908 to 1916 but after criticism of his conduct of the war he was replaced by David Lloyd George (18631945), who as Chancellor of the Exchequer had introduced health and unemployment insurance.
The old dominions Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa emerged from the war as autonomous countries, and their independent status was confirmed by the Statute of Westminster (1931). The Easter Rising in Ireland (1916) led to the partition of the island in 1922. Only Northern Ireland the area with a Protestant majority stayed within the United Kingdom, but from 1968 to 1994 bitter conflict resurfaced in the province as Roman Catholic republicans seeking unity with the Republic of Ireland clashed with Protestant Loyalists intent upon preserving the link with Britain. British troops were stationed in Northern Ireland to keep order and to defeat the terrorist violence of the IRA and Loyalist illegal organizations. In 1994 the terrorist organizations declared a ceasefire and the Northern Ireland peace process began.
In World War II (see pp. 44445) Britain led by PM Sir Winston Churchill (18741965), who had strenuously opposed appeasement in the 1930s (see p. 443) played a major role in the defeat of the Axis powers, and from 1940 to 1941 the UK stood alone against an apparently invincible Germany. Following the war, the Labor government of Clement Attlee (18831967) established the welfare state. At the same time, the British Empire began its transformation into a Commonwealth of some 50 independent states, starting with the independence of India in 1947 (see pp. 44849). By the late 1980s Britain was no longer a world power, although a British nuclear deterrent was retained.
By the 1970s the UK was involved in restructuring its domestic economy and, consequently, its welfare state from 1979 to 1990 under the Conservative premiership of Margaret Thatcher (1925 ). The country has also joined (1973) and has attempted to come to terms with the EU/EC. Britain has resisted European federalism, in particular moves to introduce a common currency and the Social Charter. In 1994-95 the question of devolution of government to Scotland and Wales, which had been a major issue of the later 1970s, resurfaced.
Religions: Roman Catholic (58%), various Protestant Churches
GOVERNMENT
The President and Congress consisting of a 31-member Senate and a 99-member Chamber of Deputies are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The President appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Uruguay consists mainly of low plains and plateau. Hills in the southeast rise to over 500 m (1640 ft). Climate: Uruguay has a temperate climate with warm summers and mild winters. Rainfall averages around 900 mm (35 in).
ECONOMY
Pastureland for sheep and beef cattle covers about 80% of the land. Meat, wool and hides are the leading exports. Despite a lack of natural resources, Uruguay has a high standard of living, but the demands of the welfare state have placed a burden on the economy. Currency: Peso.
HISTORY
The Spanish landed in Uruguay in 1516, and for much of the colonial era Uruguay was disputed between Spain and Portugal. In 1808 independence was declared from Spain, but Uruguay had to repulse successive Brazilian and Argentinian armies (181127) before independence was achieved (1828). Until 1903 Uruguay was ruled by dictators and wracked by civil war. However, prosperity from cattle and wool, and the presidencies of the reformer Jos
Battle (190307 and 191115), turned Uruguay into a democracy and an advanced welfare state. A military dictatorship held power during the Depression (see p. 441). By the late 1960s economic problems had ushered in a period of social and political turmoil, and urban guerrillas became active. In 1973 a coup installed a military dictatorship that made Uruguay notorious for abuses of human rights. In 1985 the country returned to democratic rule.
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UZBEKIST
UZBEKISTAN
Official name: Ozbekiston Jumhuriyati (Republic of Uzbekistan)
Member of: UN, CIS, OSCE
Area: 447400 km2 (172700 sq mi)
Population: 21180000 (1993 est)
Capital: Tashkent 2120000 (1992 est)
Other major cities: Samarkand (Samarqand) 372000, Namangan 333000 (1991 census)
Languages: Uzbek (official; 71%), Russian (8%), Tajik (4%)
Religion: Sunni Islam majority
GOVERNMENT
A 150-member Assembly (Majlis) is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. The President is directly elected for five years. The only legal political party is the (former Communist) Peoples Democratic Party.
GEOGRAPHY
Western Uzbekistan is flat and mainly desert. The mountainous east includes ridges of the Tien Shan and part of the Fergana valley. Climate: Uzbekistan has a warm continental climate characterized by hot summers and low rainfall. Only the mountains receive over 500 mm (20 in) of rain a year.
ECONOMY
Uzbekistan is one the worlds leading producers of cotton, but the extraction of irrigation from the Amu Darya and its tributaries has contributed to the gradual shrinkage of the Aral Sea. The republic has important reserves of natural gas and major machine and heavy engineering industries. The economy is still mainly state-owned and centrally planned, and reforms have been slowed by the government. Currency: Som.
HISTORY
The region was overrun by the Persians (6th century bc), the Arabs (8th century ad) and the Mongols (13th century), before becoming the center of the empire of Tamerlane (Timur) and his descendants. The Uzbek khanates of Bukhara and Khiva were established in the 15th and 16th centuries respectively. Tsarist Russia first attempted to invade the region in 1717, but the Uzbeks did not finally come under Russian rule until the khans of Bukhara and Khiva became vassals of the Tsar (186873). After the Russian Revolution (see p. 438), the Basmachi revolt (191822) resisted Soviet rule, but the khans were eventually deposed (1920) and Soviet republics established (192324). Uzbekistan was created in 1924, when the boundaries of Soviet Central Asia were reorganized. Independence was declared after the abortive coup in Moscow by Communist hardliners and international recognition was achieved when the USSR was dissolved (1991). Alleged abuses of human rights in independent Uzbekistan have attracted international criticism.
Languages: English (official; 60% as a second language), French (official; 40% as a second language), Bislama (national; 82% as a first language), 130 local dialects
Religions: Presbyterian (33%), Anglican (30%), animist (20%), Roman Catholic (17%)
GOVERNMENT
The 46-member Parliament is elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. It elects a Prime Minister, who appoints a Council of Ministers. The President is elected for five years by Parliament and the Presidents of Regional Councils.
GEOGRAPHY
Vanuatu comprises over 75 islands, some of which are mountainous and include active volcanoes. Climate: Vanuatus tropical climate is moderated by southeast trade winds from May to October.
ECONOMY
Subsistence farming occupies the majority of the labor force. The main exports include copra, fish and cocoa. Tourism is increasingly important. Currency: Vatu.
HISTORY
Vanuatu was settled by Melanesians around 2000 bc (see p. 389). Discovered by the Portuguese in 1606, the islands were charted in 1774 by Captain Cook, who named the group the New Hebrides. British and French commercial interests in the 19th century resulted in joint control over the islands and the establishment of a condominium in 1906. The islands gained independence as Vanuatu in 1980, but have been troubled by attempted secession and political unrest.
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VATICAN_
VATICAN CITY
Official name: Stato della Citt
del Vaticano (State of the Vatican City). Also known as the Holy See.
Member of: OSCE
Area: 0.44 km2 (0.17 sq mi)
Population: 750 (1989 est)
Languages: Italian and Latin (both official)
Religion: The Vatican is the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church.
GOVERNMENT
The Pope is elected Bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church for life by the Sacred College of Cardinals. The Vatican City is administered by a Pontifical Commission appointed by the Pope.
GEOGRAPHY
The state consists of the Vatican City, a walled enclave in Rome, plus a number of churches in Rome (including the cathedral of St John Lateran), the papal villa at Castelgandolfo and the Vatican Radio station at Santa Maria di Galeria.
HISTORY
The tiny Vatican City state is all that remains of the once extensive Papal States. In 756 the Lombard king ceded territory in central and north Italy to the Pope, who became a temporal as well as a spiritual ruler. The Papal States comprised Latium (the area around Rome), Umbria, Marche and Romagna. The Papacy maintained its temporal power despite numerous disputes with the Holy Roman Emperors (see p. 399) through the Middle Ages. For much of the 14th century the Popes resided at Avignon in France, and from 1378 to 1417 in the Great Schism (see p. 399) there were always two or three men claiming to be the rightful Pope. The Papal States reached their greatest extent under Pope Julius II (reigned 150313), but by the 17th and 18th centuries the Popes temporal power was weak and his States were poorly administered.
During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (see pp. 42627), the Papal States were variously annexed by neighbors and absorbed into the French Empire (17981815). The Papal States were restored in 1815, but all except Rome and Latium were lost during Italian unification (185960; see p. 428). When the French troops protecting the Pope were withdrawn in 1870, Italian forces entered Rome, which became the capital of the new kingdom of Italy. Pope Pius IX (reigned 184678) protested at the loss of his temporal power and retreated into the Vatican, from which no Pope emerged until 1929, when the Lateran Treaties provided for Italian recognition of the Vatican City as an independent state. Since the 1960s the Papacy has again played an important role in international diplomacy, particularly under Popes Paul VI (reigned 196378) and John Paul II (1978 ).
Languages: Spanish (official; 98%), various Amerindian languages
Religion: Roman Catholic (92%)
GOVERNMENT
The President and both Houses of the National Congress are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. The Senate the upper House comprises 49 elected senators, plus former Presidents. The Chamber of the Deputies has 205 directly elected members. The President appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Mountains in the north which include part of the Andes rise to Pico Bolivar at 5007 m (16423 ft). Central Venezuela comprises low-lying grassland plains (the Llanos). The Guiana Highlands in the southeast include many high steep-sided plateau. Principal river: Orinoco 2736 km (1700 mi). Climate: The tropical coast is arid. The cooler mountains and the tropical Llanos are wet, although the latter has a dry season from December to March.
ECONOMY
As petroleum and natural gas account for 80% of export earnings, the fall in petroleum prices in the 1980s damaged Venezuelas economy. Agriculture is mainly concerned with raising beef cattle, and growing sugar cane and coffee for export; bananas, maize and rice are grown as subsistence crops. Currency: Bolivar.
HISTORY
Venezuela was originally inhabited by Arawak and Carib Indians. Although the first permanent Spanish settlement was established in 1520, Spain did not effectively colonize Venezuela until the 17th century. In 1806 Francisco Miranda (17521816) led a war of independence that was successfully concluded by Sim
n Bol
var (17831830) in 1823. Initially united with Colombia and Ecuador, Venezuela seceded in 1830. Independence was followed by a series of military coups, revolts and dictators, including Juan Vicente G
mez, whose harsh rule lasted from 1909 to 1935. Since General Marcos Per
z Jim
nez was overthrown (1958), Venezuela has been a civilian democracy. However, there have been two abortive coup attempts in the 1990s, partly as a result of economic uncertainty.
Other major cities: Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) 4076000, Haiphong 1517000 (1992 est)
Language: Vietnamese (official; 84%), Tay, Khmer
Religions: Buddhist (55%), Roman Catholic (7%), Cao Dai (3%), Buddhist minority
GOVERNMENT
The 395-member National Assembly is elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The Assembly elects, from its own members, a Council of State whose Chairman is head of state and a Council of Ministers, headed by a Prime Minister. Effective power is in the hands of the Communist Party, the only legal party.
GEOGRAPHY
Plateau, hill country and chains of mountains in Annam (central Vietnam) lie between the Mekong River delta in the south and the Red River (Hongha) delta in the north. The highest point is Fan si Pan (3142 m/10308 ft). Principal river: Mekong 4350 km (2702 mi). Climate: Vietnam has a hot humid climate, although winters are cool in the north. Heavy rainfall comes mainly during the monsoon season from April to October.
ECONOMY
Over three quarters of the labor force is involved in agriculture, mainly cultivating rice. Other crops include cassava, maize and sweet potatoes for domestic consumption, and rubber, tea and coffee for export. Natural resources include coal, phosphates and tin, which are the basis of industries in the north. The wars in Vietnam, involvement in Cambodia and the loss of skilled workers through emigration have all had a serious effect on the economy. Despite aid from the USSR and the Eastern bloc up to the end of the 1980s, Vietnam remains underdeveloped. Attempts have been made to encourage Western investment since 198990. Currency: Dong.
HISTORY
Tonkin (the north of Vietnam) and Annam (the center) broke free of Chinese rule in 939 and, apart from a brief reconquest (140728), these areas formed an independent Vietnamese state until 1757. In 1802 Nguyen Anh united Tonkin, Annam and Cochin-China (the south), and made himself emperor of Vietnam. The French intervened in the area from the 1860s, established a protectorate in Vietnam in 1883 and formed the Union of Indochina including Cambodia and Laos in 1887. Revolts against colonial rule in the 1930s marked the start of a period of war and occupation that lasted for over 40 years. For the history of the Japanese occupation during World War II, the war against French colonial forces (194654), the partition (1954) into a Communist state in the north and a pro-Western state in the south, the Vietnam War and US involvement (196473), see pp. 45253.
Since the Communist takeover of the south (1975) and the reunification of Vietnam, reconstruction has been hindered by a border war with China (1979) and the occupation of Cambodia (197989) by Vietnamese forces. Lack of Western aid and investment has hindered economic development, and this, combined with political repression, led to large numbers of refugees (the Boat People) fleeing Vietnam. Since 198990 more pragmatic policies have been adopted, but, although liberalizatin of the economy is being pursued, there is no indication that political reforms will follow.
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WESTERN SAMOA
Official names: The Independent State of Western Samoa and Malo Saoloto Tutoatasi o Samoa i Sisifo
Member of: UN, Commonwealth
Area: 2831 km2 (1093 sq mi)
Population: 163000 (1993 est)
Capital: Apia 33000 (1991 census)
Languages: English and Samoan (official)
Religions: Congregational (47%), Roman Catholic (22%), Methodist
GOVERNMENT
Forty-seven of the 49 members of the Assembly (Fono) are elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. Only members of the Matai (the elected clan leaders) are eligible to stand for election. The other two members of the Assembly are elected by non-Samoan residents. The current head of state is analogous to a constitutional monarch, but future heads of state will be elected for a five-year term by the Assembly. The head of state appoints a Prime Minister, who, in turn, appoints a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The country consists of seven small islands and two larger and higher volcanic islands. Climate: The islands have a tropical climate with high temperatures and very heavy rainfall.
ECONOMY
The majority of Samoans are involved in subsistence agriculture. Copra (from coconuts), cocoa and bananas are the main exports. Currency: Tala.
HISTORY
Samoa was settled by Polynesians about 300 bc (see p. 389). From the 1870s the USA, UK and Germany became active in Samoa. In 1899 the three rival powers divided the group, giving the western islands to Germany. New Zealand occupied the German islands in 1914, and administered Western Samoa until independence in 1962. A large proportion of the economically active population has emigrated to New Zealand.
Official name: Al-Jamhuriya al-Yamaniya (Republic of Yemen)
Member of: UN, Arab League
Area: 472099 km2 (182278 sq mi) de facto or 531870 km2 (205356 sq mi) according to Yemeni territorial claims
Population: 12460000 (1993 est)
Capital: Sanaa 427000 (including suburbs; 1986 est)
Other major cities: Aden 318000, Taiz 178000 (1986 est)
Language: Arabic (official)
Religion: Islam Sunni Islam (54%), Zaidist Shia Islam (46%)
GOVERNMENT
A 301-member House of Representatives and a President are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
The Yemen Highlands rise from a narrow coastal plain to 3760 m (12 336 ft) at Jebel Hadhar. An arid plateau in the east extends into the Arabian Desert. Climate: Most of the highlands have a temperate climate, but the rest of the country is hot and dry.
ECONOMY
Cereal crops, coffee and citrus fruit are grown under irrigation in the fertile highlands. In the south, subsistence farming and fishing occupy the majority of the labor force. Money sent back by Yemenis working abroad is an important source of revenue. Currencies: The two official currencies are the (former North Yemeni) Riyal and the former (South Yemeni) Dinar.
HISTORY
From the 8th to the 1st century bc the north was the home of the Sabaeans. In ad 628 the area became Islamic. The Ottoman Turks first occupied the area in 1517 and were not finally expelled from the north until 1911, when Imam Yahya secured Yemens independence. Britain took Aden as a staging post to India (1839) and gradually established a protectorate over the south. In 1963 an armed rebellion began against British rule in South Yemen (then known as South Arabia), which gained independence in 1967 after a civil war between rival liberation movements. A republican revolution broke out in North Yemen in 1962, and from 1963 until 1970 a civil war was fought, with President Nassers Egypt supporting the victorious republicans and Saudi Arabia supporting the royalists. Relations between North Yemen and (Marxist) South Yemen were difficult. The collapse of South Yemens Communist trading partners (198990) undermined the countrys weak economy, and the two countries merged in 1990.# However, the union was uneasy: the economies of the two former states were not merged, and social and political differences between North and South Yemen were enormous. In 1994 the strains upon the union exploded in a short, bitter civil war as the South unsuccessfully attempted secession.
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11-1-1-1
YUGOSLAV
YUGOSLAVIA (SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO)
Official name: Federativna Republika Jugoslavija (The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)
Member of: UN (suspended)
Area: 102173 km2 (39449 sq mi)
Population: 10561000 (1991 est)
Capital: Belgrade (Beograd; see below)
Languages: Serb (the version of Serbo-Croat written in the Cyrillic alphabet; includes Montenegrin; 73%), Albanian (16%), Hungarian (under 4%)
Religions: Orthodox (over 75%), Sunni Islam (over 12%), small Roman Catholic minority
Other major cities: Novi Sad 260000 (city 179000), Nis_ 230000 (city 176000), Pristina 210000 (1991 census)
GOVERNMENT
Yugoslavia comprises two equal republics Serbia and Montenegro. The Federal Assembly comprises a Chamber of Republics, which has 40 members (20 elected by each of the republican parliaments), and a 138-member Chamber of Citizens, which is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The Assembly elects a Federal President who appoints a Premier and a Cabinet. The republics have their own legislatures and governments with very considerable powers and Serbia, in particular, has virtually assumed sovereign powers. The Serbian 250-member National Assembly and a President are elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The 125-member Montenegrin Assembly and a President are also directly elected.
GEOGRAPHY
Ridges of mountains occupy the greater part of the country. The north (Vojvodina) is occupied by plains drained by the rivers Danube and Tisa. The Yugoslav coastline is now confined to a short stretch on the Adriatic in Montenegro. Principal river: Danube (Dunav) 2850 km (1770 mi). Climate: Coastal Montenegro has a Mediterranean climate; inland, in Serbia, there is a moderate continental climate.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves over one quarter of the labor force. Most of the land is privately owned. Major crops include maize, wheat, sugar beet, potatoes, citrus fruit and fodder crops for sheep. Industry which is mainly concentrated around Belgrade includes food processing, textiles, metallurgy, motor vehicles and consumer goods. The countrys economy was severely damaged by the wars that began in 1991, by rampant inflation and an international embargo on trade with Serbia and Montenegro. Currency:Dinar.
HISTORY
The Slav ancestors of the Serbs arrived in the west Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries ad. In the 12th century, the Serbs created a large state and in 1345 Stefan Dus_an declared himself emperor. The Serbian empire was destroyed by (Turkish) Ottoman conquest, symbolized by the battle of Kosovo in 1389. Only mountainous Montenegro managed to preserve any autonomy. Led by Karadjordje, the Serbs rose against Turkish rule between 1804 and 1813. Under his rival Milos Obrenovic, the Serbs rose again in 1815 and became an autonomous principality, but Serbia was destabilized by rivalry between the Karadjordje and Obrenovic dynasties. Both Serbia and Montenegro were recognized as independent in 1878 (see p. 429). By the beginning of the 19th century the Slavs within the Austro-Hungarian Habsburg Empire looked increasingly to Serbia to create a South (Yugo) Slav state. After Serbia gained Macedonia in the Balkan Wars (191213; see p. 429), Austria grew wary of Serb ambitions. The assassination of the Habsburg heir (1914) by a Bosnian Serb student provided Austria with an excuse to quash Serbian independence. This led directly to World War I (see p. 436) and the dissolution of the Habsburg Empire, whose South Slav peoples united with Serbia and Montenegro in 1918.
The interwar Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes renamed Yugoslavia in 1929 was run as a highly centralized Greater Serbia. The country was wracked by nationalist tensions, and Croat separatists murdered King Alexander in 1934. Yugoslavia was attacked and dismembered by Hitler in 1941, and Yugoslavs fought the Nazis and each other. The Communist-led partisans of Josip Broz Tito (18921980) emerged victorious in 1945, and re-formed Yugoslavia on Soviet lines. Expelled by Stalin from the Soviet bloc in 1948 on account of their indiscipline, the Yugoslav Communists rejected the Soviet model, and pursued policies of decentralization, workers self-management and non-alignment. However, after Titos death in 1980, the Yugoslav experiment faltered in economic and nationalist crises.
In 1990, free elections were held throughout Yugoslavia. In 1991 Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. Following reverses in a short campaign, federal forces were withdrawn from Slovenia, but Serb insurgents, backed by Yugoslav federal forces, occupied one third of Croatia, including those areas with an ethnic Serb majority. In 1992 the fierce Serbo-Croat war came to an uneasy halt and a UN monitoring force was agreed. Croatia and Slovenia gained international recognition of their independence. When Bosnia-Herzegovina received similar recognition, Bosnian Serbs, encouraged by Serbia, seized 70% of Bosnia, killing or expelling Muslims and Croats in a campaign of ethnic cleansing. Serbia was widely blamed for the continuation of the conflict and with Montenegro was subjected to UN sanctions. International efforts to end the conflict were attempted and humanitarian aid was supplied to Bosnian Muslims by the UN. Tension also rose in Kosovo province, where Serbia forcefully resisted the separatist aspirations of ethnic Albanians. Owing to Greek opposition, international recognition of Macedonia was delayed until 1993. Faced with economic disaster, the rump Yugoslavia has been anxious to have sanctions lifted, but Serbian pressure on the Bosnian Serbs to accept various peace plans has been largely ineffective.
Other major cities: Lubumbashi 740000, Mbuji-Mayi 613000, Kisangani 373000, Kananga 372000 (1991 est)
Languages: French (official); four national languages Kiswahili, Tshiluba, Kikongo and Lingala; over 400 local languages
Religions: Roman Catholic (48%), various Protestant churches (28%), Kimbanguists (17%)
GOVERNMENT
The 222-member National Legislative Council is elected by compulsory universal suffrage for five years. The President who is directly elected for seven years appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet of Ministers.
GEOGRAPHY
Over 60% of the country comprises a basin of tropical rain forest, drained by the River Za
re (Congo) and its tributaries. Plateau and mountain ranges surrounding the basin include the Ruwenzori Massif in the east, rising to Mount Ngaliema at 5109 m (16763 ft). Principal river: Za
re 4700 km (2920 mi). Climate: Za
re has a humid, tropical climate with little seasonal variation, although the north is drier from December to February.
ECONOMY
Over 65% of the labor force is involved in agriculture. Although subsistence farming predominates, coffee, tea and palm products are exported. Minerals are the mainstay of the economy, with copper, cobalt, zinc and diamonds normally accounting for about 60% of Za
res exports. However, much of the countrys infrastructure has broken down and Za
re has one of the lowest standards of living in Africa. Currency: Za
HISTORY
The African Luba and Kuba kingdoms flourished from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The region was ravaged by the slave trade, and in 1885 became the personal possession of King Leopold II of the Belgians. However, international outrage at the brutality of the regime in the Congo Free State forced the king to grant the region to Belgium as a colony in 1908. As the Belgian Congo, the colony became a major exporter of minerals. The provision of social services, especially primary education, was relatively advanced, but the administration curbed almost all African political activity. As a result, the country was inadequately prepared when Belgium suddenly decolonized the Congo in 1960. Within days of independence, the army mutinied and the richest region Katanga, under Mo
se Tshombe attempted to secede. The Congo invited the United Nations to intervene, but the UN force was only partly successful in overcoming continuing civil wars. Colonel Mobutu twice intervened and in 1965 made himself head of state. He renamed the country Za
re, gradually restored the authority of the central government, and introduced a one-party state (1967). Mobutus strong rule attracted international criticism. Following growing popular pressure, he was obliged to concede political pluralism and a national conference to bring democracy to Za
re (1991). In 199293 conflicts erupted between Mobutu and the conference (represented by the PM), and law-and-order broke down in parts of the country. Except in isolated pockets, Za
re as a nation-state has practically ceased to exist and ethnic unrest is widespread.
Religions: various Protestant Churches (50%), animist (25%), Roman Catholic (20%)
GOVERNMENT
A President and the 150-member National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage for five years. The President appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet.
GEOGRAPHY
Zambia comprises plateau some 1000 to 1500 m (3300 to 5000 ft) high, above which rise the Muchinga Mountains reaching 2164 m (7100 ft) and the Mufinga Hills. Principal river: Zambezi 3540 km (2200 mi). Climate: Zambia has a tropical climate with a wet season from November to April.
ECONOMY
Zambias economy depends upon the mining and processing of copper, lead, zinc and cobalt. Agriculture is underdeveloped and many basic foodstuffs have to be imported. Maize and cassava are the main crops. Currency: Kwacha.
HISTORY
The area was brought under the control of the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes in the 1890s. In 1924 Britain took over the administration from the Company, but development of the colony (named Northern Rhodesia) was initially slow. Skilled mining jobs were reserved for white immigrants, and, fearing increased discrimination, Africans opposed inclusion in the Central African Federation, with Nyasaland (Malawi) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), in 1953. Against strong opposition from white settlers, Kenneth Kaunda (1924 ) led Northern Rhodesia, renamed Zambia, to independence in 1964. Zambia was a one-party state from 1973 to 1990. In elections in 1991 Kaunda was defeated in the first democratic change of government in English-speaking Black Africa.# Zambia faces major economic and social problems, including an AIDS epidemic.
Other major cities: Bulawayo 621000, Chitungwiza 274000 (1989 est)
Languages: English (official), Chishona, Sindebele
Religions: Animist (42%), Anglican (30%), Roman Catholic (15%), Presbyterian
GOVERNMENT
The 150-member House of Assembly comprises 120 members elected by universal adult suffrage for six years, 12 nominated members, 10 traditional chiefs and eight appointed provincial governors. The President who is elected by Parliament for six years appoints a Cabinet which is responsible to the Assembly.
GEOGRAPHY
Central Zimbabwe comprises the ridge of the Highveld, rising to between 1200 and 1500 m (about 4000 to 5000 ft). The Highveld is bounded on the southwest and northeast by the Middle Veld and the Lowveld plateau. The highest point is Mount Inyangani at 2592 m (8504 ft). Principal river: Zambezi 3540 km (2200 mi). Climate: The climate is tropical in the lowlands and subtropical at altitude. There is a pronounced dry season from June to September.
ECONOMY
Agriculture involves over 65% of the labor force. Tobacco, sugar cane, cotton, wheat and maize are exported as well as being the basis of processing industries. Natural resources include coal, gold, asbestos and nickel. Currency: Zimbabwe dollar.
HISTORY
The region was the location of the ancient Zimbabwe kingdom (see p. 388). The area was gradually penetrated by British and Boer hunters, missionaries and prospectors from the 1830s, and was occupied by the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes in the 1890s. The highlands of what became Southern Rhodesia were settled by White farmers, who deprived Africans of land and reduced them to a cheap labor force. Britain took over the administration from the Company in 1923 and granted self-government to the White colonists. Immigration from Britain and South Africa increased after World War II, but the Whites remained outnumbered by the Africans by more than 20 to 1. Racial discrimination stimulated African nationalism, initially led by Joshua Nkomo (1917 ). When the short-lived Central African Federation of South Rhodesia, North Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) was dissolved (1963), Britain refused the White South Rhodesian administration independence without progress to majority rule.
The White government led by Ian Smith (1919 ) unilaterally declared independence in 1965, renaming the country Rhodesia. Internal opposition was crushed and international economic sanctions were overcome, but guerrilla wars, mounted by African nationalists during the 1970s, became increasingly effective. In 1979 Smith had to accept majority rule, but the constitution he introduced was unacceptable either to the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) of Joshua Nkomo or to the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) of Robert Mugabe (1928 ). All parties agreed to the brief reimposition of British rule to achieve a settlement. ZANU under Mugabe took the country to independence in 1980. In 1987 ZANU and ZAPU finally agreed to unite, effectively introducing a one-party state.
Other major cities: Shanghai 13400000, Tientsin 8430000, Shenyang 4450000, Wuhan 3750000, Guangzhou (Canton) 3580000, Chongquin 2980000, Harbin 2930000, Chengdu 2810000, Xian 2760000, Nanjing (Nanking) 2500000, Zibo 2460000, Dalian (Darien) 2400000, Jinan 2290000, Changchun 2070000, Qingdao 2040000, Shenzhen 2000000, with 23 other urban municipalities with over 1 million inhabitants (1991 est)
Languages: Chinese (Guoyo or Mandarin dialect in the majority, with local dialects in south and southeast, e.g. Cantonese and Wu), small Mongol, Tibetan and other minorities
Religions: Officially atheist but those religions and philosophies practiced include traditional Chinese folk religions, Confucianism and Daoism (over 20% together), Buddhism (c. 15%)
GOVERNMENT
The 2978 deputies of the National Peoples Congress are elected for a five-year term by the Peoples Congresses of the 22 provinces, five autonomous provinces and three municipal provinces, and by the army. The Congress elects a Standing Committee, a President (for a five-year term), a Prime Minister and a State Council (or Cabinet) all of whom are responsible to the Congress. The only legal party is the Chinese Communist Party, which holds a Congress every five years. The Party Congress elects a Central Committee, which in turn elects a Politburo, and it is these two bodies that hold effective power.
GEOGRAPHY
China is the third largest country in the world in area and the largest in population. Almost half of China comprises mountain chains, mainly in the west, including the Alta
and Tien Shan Mountains in Xinjiang Uygur, and the Kun Lun Mountains to the north of Tibet. The Tibetan Plateau at an altitude of 3000 m (10000 ft) is arid. In the south of Tibet is the Himalaya, containing 40 peaks over 7000 m (23000 ft), including Mt Everest (8863 m / 29078 ft). In the far south, the Yunnan Plateau rises to nearly 3700 m (12000 ft), while in the far northeast, ranges of hills and mountains almost enclose the Northeast Plain, formerly known as Manchuria. The Nan Ling Range of hills and mountains crosses central China and separates the basins of the Yellow (Huang He) and Yangtze (Chang Jiang). In east and central China, three great lowlands support intensive agriculture and dense populations the plains of central China, the Sichuan Basin and the North China Plain. A vast loess plateau, deeply dissected by ravines, lies between the Mongolian Plateau which contains the Gobi Desert and the deserts of the Tarim and Dzungarian Basins in the northwest. Principal rivers: Yangtze (Chang Jiang) 6300 km (3915 mi), Huang He (Yellow River) 5464 km (3395 mi), Xijiang (Sikiang) 2197 km (1323 mi). Climate: In general, temperatures increase from north to south, and rainfall increases from northwest to southeast. Northeast China has a continental climate with warm and humid summers, long cold winters, and rainfall under 750 mm (30 in). The central lowlands contain the hottest areas of China, and have 750 to 1100 mm (30 to 40 in) of rainfall. The south is wetter, while the extreme subtropical south experiences the monsoon. The continental loess plateau is cold in the winter, warm in summer and has under 500 mm (20 in) of rain. The northwest is arid, continental and experiences cold winters. The west Tibet, Xinjiang Uygur, Gansu and Nei Monggol experiences an extreme climate owing to its altitude and distance from the sea; rainfall is low and most of Tibet has ten months of frost.
ECONOMY
Agriculture occupies 60% of the labor force. All large-scale production is on collective farms, but traditional and inefficient practices remain. Almost half the arable land is irrigated, and China is the worlds largest producer of rice. Other major crops include wheat, maize, sweet potatoes, sugar cane and soyabeans. Livestock, fruit, vegetables and fishing are also important, but China is unable to supply all its own food. Mineral and fuel resources are considerable and, for the most part, underdeveloped. They include coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, bauxite, tin and antimony in major reserves, as well as huge hydroelectric power potential. The economy is centrally planned, with all industrial plant owned by the state. Petrochemical products account for nearly one quarter of Chinas exports. Other major industries include iron and steel, cement, vehicles, fertilizers, food processing, clothing and textiles. Recent reforms have promoted an open-door policy under which joint ventures with other countries and foreign loans have been encouraged, together with a degree of small-scale private enterprise. Special Economic Zones and open cities were designated in the south and central coastal areas to encourage industrial links with the West. Although foreign investment temporarily diminished after the 1989 pro-democracy movement was suppressed, sustained economic progress has been achieved particularly in the Shanghai area and in southern China, where Guangdong province is the center of major industrial development. Very high growth rates have been achieved during the past decade. Currency: Renminbi (or Yuan).
HISTORY
The history of China is covered in the Encyclopedia.
Languages: Russian (83%), Tatar (4%), Ukrainian (3%), Chuvash (1%), Bashkir (1%), Belarussian (1%), Chechen (1%), plus more than 100 other languages
Religions: Orthodox (27%), with Sunni Islam, Jewish, Baptist and other minorities
GOVERNMENT
Russia is a federation of 21 republics and 68 other regions, which exercise varying degrees of self-government. An executive President, who appoints a Council of Ministers including a Prime Minister, is directly elected for a maximum of two five-year terms. The bicameral Federal Assemby is elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. The lower house (the State Duma) comprises 450 members, of whom 225 are elected by single member constituencies and 225 are elected from party lists under a system of proportional representation. The upper house, the Federal Council, comprises two members elected from each of the 89 republics and regions that comprise the Federation.
GEOGRAPHY
Russia is the largest country in the world and covers over 10% of the total land area of the globe. Most of the land between the Baltic and the Ural Mountains is covered by the North European Plain, south of which the relatively low-lying Central Russian Uplands stretch from the Ukrainian border to north of Moscow. To the east of the Urals is the vast West Siberian Lowland, the greater part of which is occupied by the basin of the River Ob and its tributaries. The Central Siberian Plateau between the Rivers Yenisey and Lena rises to around 1700 m (5500 ft). Beyond the Lena are the mountains of east Siberia, including the Chersky Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula. Much of the south of Siberia is mountainous. The Yablonovy and Stanovoy Mountains rise inland from the Amur Basin, which drains to the Pacific coast. The Altai Mountains lie south of Lake Baikal and along the border with Mongolia. Between the Black and Caspian Seas are the high Caucasus Mountains which rise to Elbrus at 5642 m (18 510 ft) on the Georgian border. The Kaliningrad enclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic is a detached part of Russia. Principal rivers: Yenisey-Angara-Selanga 5540 km (3442 mi), Ob-Irtysh 5409 km (3361 mi), Lena-Kirenga 4400 km (2734 mi), Amur-Argun 4345 km (2700 mi), Volga 3530 km (2193 mi). Climate: Russia has a wide range of climatic types, but most of the country is continental and experiences extremes of temperature. The Arctic north is a severe tundra region in which the subsoil is nearly always frozen. The forested taiga zone, to the south, has long hard winters and short summers. The steppes and the Central Russian Uplands have cold winters, but hot, dry summers. Between the Black and Caspian seas, conditions become almost Mediterranean. The Kaliningrad enclave has a more temperate climate than the rest of western Russia.
ECONOMY
Russia is one of the largest producers of coal, iron ore, steel, petroleum and cement. However, its economy is in crisis. The economic reforms (198591) of Mikhail Gorbachov introduced decentralization to a centrally-planned economy. Since 1991, reform has been accelerated through the introduction of free market prices and the encouragement of private enterprise. However, lack of motivation in the labor force affects many sectors of the economy and poor distribution has resulted in shortages of many basic goods. Inflation became rampant after 1991, but Russias economic decline slowed in 1994. Manufacturing involves one third of the labor force and includes the steel, chemical, textile and heavy machinery industries. The production of consumer goods is not highly developed. Agriculture is large-scale and organized either into state-owned farms or collective farms, although the right to own and farm land privately has been introduced. Despite mechanization and the worlds largest fertilizer industry, Russia cannot produce enough grain for its needs, in part because of poor harvests, and poor storage and transport facilities. Major Russian crops include wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beet and fruit. Natural resources include the worlds largest reserves of coal, nearly one third of the worlds natural gas reserves, one third of the worlds forests, major deposits of manganese, gold, potash, bauxite, nickel, lead, zinc and copper, as well as plentiful sites for hydroelectric power installations. Machinery, petroleum and petroleum products are Russias major exports and the republic is self-sufficient in energy. Russia has a large trade surplus with the other former Soviet republics. Currency: Rouble.
HISTORY
The earliest known homeland of the Slavs is thought to lie in the northern foothills of the Carpathians in Ukraine from whence the East Slavs migrated towards the Dnepr valley during the first millennium bc. The steppes to the north of the Black Sea were dominated by a series of nomadic peoples Sarmatians, Scythians, Huns, Avars, Khazars, Pechenegs and Mongols. Rus centered on Kiev was the ancestor of both Russia and Ukraine. It developed from the 9th century on the trade route linking the Baltic with the Black Sea. Its first princes were of Viking origin, though its population was largely East Slav. In ad 988, Grand Prince Volodymyr (Vladimir) of Kiev established Orthodox Christianity in Rus. Kiev subsequently declined, but other powerful centers grew up, including the mercantile republic of Novgorod (western Russia). In 1240, the principalities of Rus were destroyed by Tatar invasions.
The city of Moscow (founded pre-1147) claimed the lands of Rus and created the first state to use the name Rossiya (Russia). Ivan III (reigned 14621505) threw off the Tatar yoke and annexed Moscows chief rival, Novgorod. He assumed the title of Tsar (Caesar). Claiming that Moscow was the Third Rome after Constantinople he began a 500-year saga of imperial conquest unparalleled in European history. Ivan IV (the Terrible; reigned 153384) launched Russias expansion into Siberia, and in 1589 created the first Patriarch of Moscow, thus formalizing the separate existence of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Romanov dynasty, which ruled until 1917, emerged from the wars of the Time of Troubles (15981613). In 1662, Muscovy annexed part of Ukraine from Poland. Peter I (the Great; reigned 16821725) proclaimed himself Emperor and turned Russia into a great power by his victories over Sweden in the Great Northern War, by social and administrative reforms, by founding a new capital on the Baltic (St Petersburg) and by welcoming Western influence (see p. 417).
In Russias imperial history, perpetual military conquests interlace with repeated bouts of failed internal reform. Catherine II (the Great; reigned 176296) was responsible for the three partitions of Poland which brought more land and population and for increasing the privileges of the nobility and of the cities. Alexander I (reigned 180125) dabbled with constitutional ideas, but was absorbed with the struggle against Napoleon I, who occupied Moscow in 1812 (see pp. 42627). Under Nicholas I (reigned 182555) the champion of autocracy, Orthodoxy and Russian nationalism a fierce reaction set in. Alexander II (the Liberator; reigned 185581) emancipated the serfs, but suppressed the Polish rising of 186364 with severity. Throughout the 19th century, the frontiers of the Russian Empire continued to expand into Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Far East and at the same time Russia attempted to increase its influence in southeast Europe at the expense of the declining Turkish Empire. These imperial tendencies sometimes led to confrontation with Western European powers (see p. 429). Alexander III (reigned 188194) combined repression at home with restraint abroad. Under Nicholas II (reigned 18941917), Russia saw rapid industrialization, rising prosperity, and (after 1906) limited constitutional reform, but his reign was cut short by World War I and the two Revolutions of February and October 1917 (see pp. 43637 and 43839).
For details of the Russian Revolutions, the establishment of the USSR and the careers of Lenin and Stalin, see pp. 43839.
In World War II in which up to 20 million Soviet citizens may have died the USSR at first concluded a pact with Hitler (1939), and invaded Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states, annexing considerable territory. However, in 1941 the Germans invaded the USSR (see pp. 44445). In victory the Soviet Union was confirmed as a world power, controlling a cordon of satellite states in Eastern Europe and challenging the West in the Cold War (see pp. 45051). However, the economy stagnated and the country was drained by the burdens of an impoverished and overstretched empire. Leonid Brezhnev (leader 196482) reversed the brief thaw that had been experienced under Nikita Khrushchev (leader 195664), and far-reaching reform had to await the policies of Mikhail Gorbachov (1931 ) after 1985.
Faced with severe economic reforms, Gorbachov attempted to introduce reconstruction (perestroika) and greater openness (glasnost) by implementing social, economic and industrial reforms. The state of the economy also influenced the desire to reduce military spending by reaching agreements on arms reduction with the West (see pp. 289 and 451). Dissent was tolerated, a major reform of the constitution led to more open elections, and the Communist Party gave up its leading role. Many hardliners in the Communist Party were defeated by reformers (many of them non-Communists) in elections in 1989. The abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine the right of the USSR to intervene in the affairs of Warsaw Pact countries (as it had done militarily in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968) prompted rapid change in Eastern Europe, where one after another the satellite states renounced Communism and began to implement multi-party rule.
From 1989 there were increased nationalistic stirrings within the USSR, particularly in the Baltic republics and the Caucasus. In August 1991, an attempt by a group of Communist hardliners to depose Gorbachov was defeated by the resistance of Russian President Boris Yeltsin (1931 ) and by the refusal of the army to take action against unarmed civilian protesters. The opposition of Yeltsin and the Russian parliament to the coup greatly enhanced the status and powers of Russia and the 14 other Union Republics. Fourteen of the 15 republics declared independence and the secession of the three Baltic republics was recognized internationally. The remaining republics began to renegotiate their relationship. Gorbachov suspended the Communist Party and with Yeltsin initiated far-reaching political and economic reforms. However, it was too late to save the Soviet Union, whose fate was sealed by the refusal of Ukraine, the second most important of the republics, to participate in the new looser Union proposed by Gorbachov. By the end of 1991 the initiative had passed from Gorbachov to Yeltsin, who was instrumental in establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a military and economic grouping of sovereign states that eventually included all the former Union republics except the Baltic states.
After Gorbachov resigned and the Soviet Union was dissolved (December 1991). Russia took over the international responsibilities of the USSR, but faced a severe economic crisis and a constitutional crisis as Communist hardliners in the Congress disputed power with President Yeltsin. The constitutional dispute came to a head in 1993, when a core of Communist and nationalist hardliners organized an armed uprising in the parliament building in Moscow. After the parliamentary uprising was put down by army intervention, Yeltsin introduced a new constitution which concentrates power in the presidents hands. However, extreme right-wing nationalists and hardline Communists gained considerable support in multi-party elections to the new Federal Assembly in December 1993. Support for Yeltsin further decreased when, against Russian public and parliamentary opinion, the Russian army crushed the rebel Caucasian republic of Chechenyas bid to secede from the Russian Federation (1995). Russia has, however, regained much influence with CIS members, for example, as the center of a rouble zone. Russia has also organized ceasefires in Nagorno Karabkh (which is disputed between Armenia and Azerbaijan) and in the Abkhazian region of Georgia, maintained peace-keeping troops in Tajikistan and the Trans-Dnestr region of Moldova, and concluded an economic and monetary union with Belarus.
Alabama 133915 km2 (51705 sq mi), 4187000, Montgomery.
Alaska 1530693 km2 (591004 sq mi), 599000, Juneau.
Arizona 295259 km2 (114000 sq mi), 3936000, Phoenix.
Arkansas 137754 km2 (53187 sq mi), 2424000, Little Rock.
California 411047 km2 (158706 sq mi), 31211000, Sacramento.
Colorado 269594 km2 (104091 sq mi), 3566000, Denver.
Connecticut 12997 km2 (5018 sq mi), 3277000, Hartford.
Delaware 5294 km2 (2045 sq mi), 700000, Dover.
Florida 151939 km2 (58664 sq mi), 13679000, Tallahassee.
Georgia 152576 km2 (58910 sq mi), 6917000, Atlanta.
Hawaii 16760 km2 (6471 sq mi), 1172000, Honolulu.
Idaho 216430 km2 (83564 sq mi), 1099000, Boise.
Illinois 149885 km2 (57871 sq mi), 11697000, Springfield.
Indiana 94309 km2 (36413 sq mi), 5713000, Indianapolis.
Iowa 145752 km2 (56275 sq mi), 2814000, Des Moines.
Kansas 213096 km2 (82277 sq mi), 2531000, Topeka.
Kentucky 104659 km2 (40410 sq mi), 3789000, Frankfort.
Louisiana 123677 km2 (47752 sq mi), 4295000, Baton Rouge.
Maine 86156 km2 (33265 sq mi), 1239000, Augusta.
Maryland 27091 km2 (10460 sq mi), 4965000, Annapolis.
Massachusetts 21455 km2 (8284 sq mi), 6012000, Boston.
Michigan 251493 km2 (97102 sq mi), 9476000, Lansing.
Minnesota 224329 km2 (86614 sq mi), 4517000, St Paul.
Mississippi 123514 km2 (47689 sq mi), 2643000, Jackson.
Missouri 180514 km2 (69697 sq mi), 5234000, Jefferson City.
Montana 380847 km2 (147046 sq mi), 839000, Helena.
Nebraska 200349 km2 (77355 sq mi), 1607000, Lincoln.
Nevada 286352 km2 (110561 sq mi), 1389000, Carson City.
New Hampshire 24032 km2 (9279 sq mi), 1125000, Concord.
New Jersey 20168 km2 (7787 sq mi), 7879000, Trenton.
New Mexico 314924 km2 (121593 sq mi), 1616000, Santa Fe.
New York 136583 km2 (52735 sq mi), 18197000, Albany.
North Carolina 136412 km2 (52669 sq mi), 6945000, Rayleigh.
North Dakota 183117 km2 (70702 sq mi), 635000, Bismarck.
Ohio 115998 km2 (44787 sq mi), 11091000, Columbus.
Oklahoma 181185 km2 (69956 sq mi), 3231000, Oklahoma City.
Oregon 251418 km2 (97073 sq mi), 3032000, Salem.
Pennsylvania 119251 km2 (46043 sq mi), 12048000, Harrisburg.
Rhode Island 3139 km2 (1212 sq mi), 1000000, Providence.
South Carolina 80582 km2 (31113 sq mi), 3643000, Columbia.
South Dakota 199730 km2 (77116 sq mi), 715000, Pierre.
Tennessee 109152 km2 (42144 sq mi), 5099000, Nashville.
Texas 691027 km2 (266807 sq mi), 18031000, Austin.
Utah 219887 km2 (84899 sq mi), 1860000, Salt Lake City.
Vermont 24900 km2 (9614 sq mi), 576000, Montpelier.
Virginia 105586 km2 (40767 sq mi), 6491000, Richmond.
Washington 176479 km2 (68139 sq mi), 5255000, Olympia.
West Virginia 62758 km2 (24323 sq mi), 1820000, Charleston.
Wisconsin 171496 km2 (66215 sq mi), 5038000, Madison.
Wyoming 253324 km2 (97809 sq mi), 470000, Cheyenne.
District of Columbia 179 km2 (69 sq mi), 578000, Washington.
DEPENDENCIES
Commonwealth Territories in Association with the USA (with areas, populations and capitals):
North Mariana Islands 471 km2 (184 sq mi), 43300 (1990 census), Chalan Kanoa (on Saipan).
Puerto Rico 9104 km2 (3515 sq mi), 3612000 (1993 est), San Juan.
External Territories
American Samoa 197 km2 (96 sq mi), 47000 (1990 est), Pago Pago.
Guam 541 km2 (209 sq mi), 133000 (1990 census), Aga
United States Virgin Islands 352 km2 (136 sq mi), 102000 (1990 census), Charlotte Amalie.
Territories administered by US Department of Defense
Johnston Atoll 1.3 km2 (0.5 sq mi), no permanent population.
Kingman Reef 0.03 km2 (0.01 sq mi), uninhabited.
Midway Islands 5 km2 (2 sq mi), no permanent population.
Wake Island 8 km2 (3 sq mi), no permanent population.
Other territory
Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands (administered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service) 5 km2 (2 sq mi), uninhabited.
GOVERNMENT
Congress comprises the Senate (the Upper House) and the House of Representatives (the Lower House). The Senate has 100 members two from each state elected by universal adult suffrage for six years, with one third of the senators retiring every two years. The 435-
member House of Representatives is directly elected for a two-year term from single-member constituencies. Additional non-voting members of the House are returned by the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, United States Virgin Islands and American Samoa. Executive federal power is vested in the President, who serves a maximum of two four-year terms. The President and Vice President are elected by an electoral college of delegates pledged to support individual presidential candidates the college itself is elected by universal adult suffrage. Upon the approval of the Senate, the President appoints a Cabinet of Secretaries. Each of the 50 states has a separate constitution and legislature with wide-ranging powers. Executive power in each state is held by a directly elected Governor.
GEOGRAPHY
The Atlantic coastal plain stretches along the entire east coast, including the lowland peninsula of Florida, and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, where it reaches up to 800 km (500 mi) inland. The Blue Ridge escarpment rises sharply to the west of the plain. This is the most easterly part of the forested Appalachian Mountains, which stretch for some 2400 km (1500 mi) and reach 2037 m (6684 ft) at Mount Mitchell. The largest physical region of the USA is a vast interior plain drained by the Mississippi and major tributaries, including the Missouri, Arkansas, Nebraska, Ohio and Red River. This lowland stretches from the Great Lakes in the north to the coastal plain in the south, and from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Appalachians in the east. The Central Lowlands the eastern part of the lowland comprise the Cotton Belt in the south and the Corn (maize) Belt in the north. The Great Plains the drier western part of the lowland begin some 480 km (300 mi) west of the Mississippi. The west of the USA is the countrys highest region and includes the Rocky Mountains in the east and the Cascades, the Sierra Nevada and the Coastal Ranges in the west. The mountains continue north into Alaska, where Mount McKinley the highest peak in the USA reaches 6194 m (20320 ft). The western mountainous belt is prone to earthquakes, in particular along the line of the San Andreas Fault in California. Within the mountains are deserts including the Mojave and the Arizona Deserts and the large Intermontane Plateau containing the Great Basin, an area of internal drainage around the Great Salt Lake. The 20 islands of Hawaii are volcanic in origin and contain active volcanoes. The USAs natural vegetation ranges from tundra in Alaska to tropical vegetation in Hawaii, and includes coniferous forest in the northwest, Mediterranean scrub in south California, desert in the Intermontane Plateau, and prairie grasslands on the Great Plains. Principal rivers: Mississippi (with Missouri and Red Rock) 6020 km (3741 mi), Rio Grande 3035 km (1885 mi), Yukon (with Nisutlin) 3185 km (1979 mi). Climate: The mountains behind the Pacific northwest coast are the wettest region of the USA. Coastal California has a warm Mediterranean climate. Desert or semidesert conditions prevail in mountain basins. The continental Great Plains receive 250750 mm (1030 in) of rain a year, while the Central Lowlands to the east are generally wetter. Extremes of temperature are experienced in the north of the continental interior. The east is generally temperate. The Appalachians and the east coastal plain are humid, with temperatures rising in the south, where Florida is subtropical. Coastal Alaska has a cold maritime climate while the north and interior is polar. Hawaii has a Pacific climate with high temperatures and little seasonal variation.
ECONOMY
The position of the USA as the worlds leading economic power is threatened by Japan. The USA is self-sufficient in most products apart from petroleum, chemicals, certain metals and manufactured machinery, and newsprint. Agriculture is heavily mechanized and produces considerable surpluses for export. The main crops include maize, wheat, soyabeans, sugar cane, barley, cotton, potatoes and a wide variety of fruit (including citrus fruit in Florida and California). More than 25% of the USA is pastureland, and cattle and sheep are important in the Great Plains. Forests cover over 30% of the country and are the basis of the worlds second largest timber industry. The USA has great natural resources, including coal (mainly in the Appalachians), iron ore, petroleum and natural gas (mainly in Texas, Alaska and California), copper, bauxite, lead and silver, and major rivers that have proved suitable for hydroelectric power plants. The industrial base of the USA is diverse. Principal industries include iron and steel, motor vehicles, electrical and electronic engineering, food processing, chemicals, cement, aluminium, aerospace industries, telecommunications, textiles and clothing, and consumer goods. Tourism is a major foreign-currency earner. Service industries involve over three quarters of the labor force. Finance, insurance and banking are important, and Wall Street (New York) is one the worlds major stock exchanges. US economic policy exerts an influence throughout the world, thus a revival of pressure for trade protectionism since the late 1980s has caused international concern. Currency: US dollar.
HISTORY
The earliest human settlement in America was probably around 10 000 bc, when descendants of hunters from Siberia moved south. Nearly all the American Indians spring from this ancestry (see pp. 39091). The Vikings may have reached Maine and even Cape Cod, but the first recorded European landing was by the Spaniard Juan Ponce de Le
n in Florida (1513). After abortive attempts at colonization, continuous European settlement began in the 17th century. The Spanish settled in Florida (which they retained until the early 19th century); the French gradually took possession of a vast territory (Louisiana) stretching from New Orleans to the Great Lakes; Dutch colonists were active in New York (originally New Amsterdam); and a Swedish colony was founded in Delaware (163855). However, it was the British who gained mastery of the region.
The Virginia plantation, based on Jamestown, began in 1607, and in 1620 the Puritans (the Pilgrim Fathers) reached Cape Cod (see p. 422). By 1700 there were 13 British colonies on the eastern seaboard of what is now the USA. Throughout the 18th century discontent with British rule grew in the colonies, leading to the American War of Independence (177583). For details of the birth of the USA see pp. 42223.
The USA grew rapidly. The Louisiana Purchase (1803),
from France, doubled the size of the country, taking its frontier deep into the Central Lowlands. Expansion to the west was part of the transformation of the USA from an underdeveloped rural nation into a world power stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific (see pp. 43031). As a result of wars against Mexico in the 1840s vast new territories were added to the Union Texas, California, Arizona and New Mexico. Strains appeared between the increasingly industrial North and the plantation South over the issue of slavery. This led to the Civil War (see pp. 43031) under the presidency of Abraham Lincoln (180965). The North was victorious, but after federal troops were withdrawn from the South (1877) racial segregation returned to the South until after World War II.
Between 1880 and 1900 the USA emerged as an industrial giant (see p. 431). At the same time, the population increased dramatically, as immigrants flocked to the New World, in particular from Germany, eastern Europe and Russia (see p. 431). Interest in world trade increased American involvement abroad. The Cuban revolt against Spanish rule led the USA into a war against Spain (1898) and brought US rule to the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam. American participation in World War I from 1917 hastened the Allied victory (see p. 437), but the idealistic principles favored by President Woodrow Wilson (18561924) were compromised in the post-war settlement (see pp. 44041). After the war the USA retreated into isolationism and protectionism in trade. The imposition of Prohibition (191933) increased smuggling and the activities of criminal gangs, but the 1920s were prosperous until the Depression began in 1929 with the collapse of the stock market (see p. 441). Federal investment and intervention brought relief through the New Deal program of President Franklin Roosevelt (18821945). The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the USA into World War II (1941; see p. 444). American involvement in the European and Pacific theaters of war was decisive and committed the USA to a world role as a superpower in 1945. US assistance was instrumental in rebuilding Europe (through the Marshall Plan) and Japan.
From the late 1940s to the end of the 1980s, the USA confronted the Soviet Unions perceived global threat in the Cold War (see pp. 45051). As the leader of the Western alliance, the USA established bases in Europe, the Far East and the Indian and Pacific Oceans, so encircling the Soviet bloc. The USA was involved in the Korean War (195053) against Chinese and North Korean forces (see p. 450), and in direct military intervention in Guatemala (1954), Lebanon (1958 and 198385), the Dominican Republic (1965), Panama (1968 and 1989) and Grenada (1983) (see pp. 45051). The greatest commitment, however, was in Vietnam, where from 1964 to 1973 US forces attempted to hold back a Communist takeover of Indochina (see pp. 45253), but a growing disenchantment with the war forced an American withdrawal.
From the 1950s the civil rights movement led by Martin Luther King (192968) campaigned for full political rights for Blacks and for desegregation of schools, hospitals, buses, etc. (see p. 291). In the early 1960s President John F. Kennedy (191763) made racial discrimination illegal. Kennedy supported the unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by right-wing exiles (1961) and was assassinated in 1963. Growing economic problems in the 1970s led to the election of a monetarist President, Ronald Reagan (1911 ), in 1981. The USA continued to support movements and governments perceived as being in the Western interest for example, backing Israel in the Middle East (see pp. 45455), providing weapons to the UNITA guerrillas in Angola and the Contra guerrillas in Nicaragua, and leading the coalition against Iraq (199091) after the latters invasion of Kuwait. However, the increasing economic challenge from Japan, and the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (1989) and the USSR (1991), raised questions about the USAs future world role. From 199091 some overseas bases were closed and stocks of nuclear weapons were cut. In 1992, American forces led relief efforts in Somalia and in 1994 intervened in Haiti as part of an international effort to restore the deposed president. However, since 1993, under President Bill Clinton, domestic issues have taken priority over foreign affairs.
American political life is dominated by two parties the Republicans and the Democrats. The Republican Party (formed in 1854) began as a party dedicated to national rather than states rights. The older Democratic Party, which was traditionally anti-federalist, was the dominant force in US politics from 1800 to 1856. From the Civil War to the 1930s the Republicans were usually the dominant party. Both parties are coalitions of shifting interests. In the 1990s the Republicans have been characterized as anti-statist, in particular with regard to welfare, while the Democrats (who draw much of their support from liberals and minorities) have sought to extend the arm of government.
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